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Group Analysis of 340 Songs

One purpose of the following analysis is to determine whether there is any evidence of connection between the motive which prompts the singing of a song and the form assumed by the song. For this test the origin and use of the song will be considered. The songs most nearly related in origin are theMide', the dream, and the war songs, as many songs said to have been "composed in dreams" were used in the ceremonies and practices of the Mide' and also on the warpath. The songs classified as "dream songs" were given as such by the singers. No special use was assigned them, and they were probably used by individuals in dances until they gradually became general throughout the tribe, usually after the death of the composers.

Fig. 1. Mide' rattle. GRAND MEDICINE SONGS (mIDE' NA'gUMOWI'NUN)

This group comprises Nos. 1-90 in Bulletin 45, and Nos. 154, 155, 156, 174, 175, of the present work. TheMide'wiwin (Grand Medicine) was the embodiment of the native religion of the Chippewa and has many adherents at the present time (1912), new members being admitted and others advanced to higher degrees in the order. Many characteristics of the Mide' songs are given in Bulletin 45 (pp. 14-20). The musical instruments accompanying the songs are described on pages 11-12, and illustrated in plates 1 and 2, of that work. The Mide' rattles shown in Bulletin 45 are of wood, with sewed covers of untanned hide. In figure 1 above is shown a similar rattle, but made entirely of wood, which formerly belonged to a prominent member of the Mide'wiwin at Waba'cifig (see p. 251). The principal classes of the Mide' songs are those of the initiation ceremony and those con-

DEXSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 35

nected witli special "medicines." The latter are sung by members of the Mide'wiwin in connection with the use of medicines for the curing of the sick or the working of charms, and also in the dances which follow the meetings of members, either for a feast or an initiation. Throughout these songs the element of affirmation is very strong; indeed, many have a triumphant tone. The idea underlying them all is the securing of a definite result through supernatural power, the music being an indispensable factor. In the initiation the desired end was the transference of "spirit power" to the candidate by the men and women who were initiating him, also the renewal of the same power in the members of the order who witnessed the ceremony, and the prolonging of tlieir lives to old age. In the songs connected with special "medicines" the purpose to be accomplished was the healing of the sick and the producing of a certain effect on one or more persons, as in the use of various "charms." Thus it is seen that this purpose was usually objective, the effect on the singer being only secondary, that the means of securing benefit was supernatural, and that the singer had full confidence in its bestowal as well as in its efficacy.

In the first tal)le of analysis it is noted tliat 72 per cent of the Mide' songs are major in tonality, this proportion being the same as in the songs of the begging dance, and exceeded only by the group of dream songs, which contains 76 per cent of major songs. The proportion of songs begiiming on the dominant (either the twelfth or the fifth) is 70 per cent, the largest of any except the begging dance songs, which contain 71 per cent, the dream, the love, and the moccasin game songs ranging from 52 to 56 per cent. Of songs beginning on the octave, however, tlie Mide' songs contain only 12 per cent, which is less than the proportion of most groups, and about half that of the dream and the war songs. Sixty-three per cent end on the tonic, six groups showing a larger proportion. The feeling for the dominant is again made evident in the compass of the songs, 50 per cent having a range of either 12 or 5 tones, which is much larger than in any other group. In songs having a range of an octave, however, the Mide' songs show only 22 per cent, while the love songs contain 37 per cent and the pipe dance songs 67 per cent

In tone material the Mide' songs are below most other groups in the number of songs on the five-toned scales, showing only 33 per cent, while other groups range from 39 to 51 per cent. The Mide' songs show the largest percentage, with one exception, in the songs having the octave complete except the seventh, namely, 14 per cent of the number, the allied groups being the war songs with 13 per cent, and the begging dance songs, which show 28 per cent. In purely melodic structure this group contains 77 per cent, a larger percentage than any

36 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 53

other except the love songs, woman's dance songs, and songs for the entertainment of children. The proportion of songs liaving the first progression a downward interval is 88 per cent, which is much larger than in any other group. The percentage of downward progression in the entire group of songs is the same as in the begging dance songs and larger than in any other group. In the number of descending minor thirds this group is exceeded only by the dream songs, and in the ascending minor thirds by the dream and the war songs. The average interval is the same as in the begging dance songs, being 2.9 semitones, the average of the entire series being 3.1 semitones, or a tenth of a semitone more than a minor third. This group is lowest of all in songs beginning on the accented part of the measure, and lower than most groups in songs beginning in 2-4 or 3-4 time.

The drum-rhythm of all these songs is a rapid, unaccented beat whicli occurs in no other group except the war songs. The proportion of songs containing a rhythmic unit is larger in this than in any other group. Table 22 shows the percentage of songs in which the drum is faster than the voice to be larger in this than in any other group except the dream and the moccasin game songs, the former being 1 per cent and the latter 31 per cent greater.

Here, then, is a group of songs known to be used as a means for accomplishing a purpose, namely, the securing of a definite effect, usually on a person other tlian the singer, by supernatural power; and the characteristics of this group are found to resemble the begging (lance songs more frequently than they do any other group. A prevailing major tonality is noted, and the feeling for the dominant is more marked than for the tonic; the songs open with less directness of "attack" than otliers, but contain a rhythmic unit more frequently than other groups. The expression is freely melodic, downward in trend, and is characterized by the interval of tlie minor third. A drumbeat faster than the metric unit of the voice is noted in songs of controlled excitement, and 51 per cent of these songs show this peculiarity. Tliis is evident also in the moccasin game songs, and is found in war song No. 30.

In the Mide' songs are found peculiarities which may be connected with the motive and the mental state of the singer: (1) The rhythmic unit suggesting a definite, crystalized idea; (2) the major tonality, a confidence in securing the desired end; (3) a preference for the dominant, tlie unaccented initial tone, and the freely melodic form, all suggesting an indirect approach; and (4) the rapid drumbeat which is, in many instances, associated with controlled excitement.

For the rhythmic units of the Mide' songs see pages 309-313.

DENSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC — Ix 37

DREAM SONGS (INA'BUNDJIGAN' Na'gUMOWi'nUN)^

This group comprises Nos. 108-121 of Bulletin 45 and Nos, 94-104 and 128-153 of the present work. The songs in this group are not composed (in the usual sense of the term) but are said to have "come to the mind of the Indian when he was in a dream." We can not fully understand this dream or trance of the Indian; we can only accept his statement that by isolation and fasting he was able to induce a certain condition in which he "saw a vision" and "composed a song." In the belief of the Indian fasting is a condition essential to certain classes of musical composition. It is a well-known fact that in a condition of inanition the brain enters on a phase of abnormal activity akin to that produced by narcotic stimulants. The composition of songs during or immediately following an abnormal mental state has been noted among other Indian tribes. Thus, for instance, Mr. James Mooney states that "persons taking part in the ghost dance voluntarily sought the trance condition, and on emerging from that condition frequently embodied the story of their vision in a song."

In some instances the Chippewa stated that tliey sang songs heard in their dreams; thus in the description of No. 1 12, Bulletin 45, the man said that he "sang a song which he heard the trees singing," and in No. 119, in the same bulletin, he "repeated the song which the crows sang." Nos. 94-99 of the present work are supposed to be the "songs" of the thunderbird, the deer, and the buffalo, which the man saw in his dream. Nos. 1, 102, 103, and 104 of the present work are said to have been learned from manido', which appeared in human form to the dreamer. Mention of the manifestations of nature occur in many dream songs; these are considered on page 16.

It is noted that 16 per cent of the dream songs relate to flight through the air. The sensation of aviation in dreams, due to some disturbance of the nervous equilibrium, is not an uncommon ])henomenon.

In the circumstances attending both the composition ami the use of the dream songs the underlying idea was tliat of expectancy and acquirement. To the Indian a "vision" was more to be desired than any material thing. Through the vision he was assured of supernatural aid which would enable him to succeed in life, and the song was one of the means by which he summoned that aid in his hour of need. Considering this idea of acquirement, so closely associated with the dream songs, it is not surprising to find them, in analysis, allied to the woman's dance songs and the songs con-

• The writer gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Dr. Ales Hrdli6ka, curator of physical anthropology, United States National Museum, and of Mr. James Mooney of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, in studying the relation between physiological conditions and musical expression.

38 BUREAU OP AMERICAN" ETHNOLOGY [bull. 53

nected with gifts. One of the principal features of the woman's dance is the presenting of gifts, an invitation to dance being accompanied by a gift. Frequently these gifts are valuable articles, as ponies, rifles, and beaded garments, and the dancers wait with pleasurable expectancy to know what presents will be bestowed on them.

At this dance tlie writer has often observed the interest witli which the Indians watcli a man who rises and walks across the dancing circle with an attractive gift in his hand. The feeling is expressed in song No. 177, Bulletin 45, wliich contains tlie words, "I liave been waiting a long time for you to come over." There is some similarity between this and tlie mental state of the man who patiently awaits the coming of a supernatural visitant. Tlie songs connected with gifts are sung at the social dances and are frequently interspersed with woman's dance songs. If the gift is so large as to require special celebration these gift songs are used. Some of them accompany the giving and some the recei\ang of the gift, but all concern an actual event and liave not the element of expectancy associated with many of the woman's dance songs.

Among the dream songs the proportion in major tonality is 4 per cent larger than in any other group, comprismg 76 per cent, the songs of the Mide' and of the beggmg dance each showing 72 per cent. This group is largest also in songs beginning on the twelfth, the group of love songs ranking next in this respect. The Mide', however^ contains the highest percentage of songs beginning on the dominant, comprising a large number of songs begmning on that interval but having a compass of less than 12 tones. The number of dream songs beginning on the octave is 1 per cent greater than in the Mide' but less than half the proportion shown by the war songs. Further resemblance to the Mide' is shown in the ending of the songs, 63 per cent ending on the tonic, as in the Mide', though seven other groups show a larger percentage. Thirty-seven per cent of the songs have a compass of 12 tones, as in the Mide', the highest proportion except in the woman's dance songs, 40 per cent of which have this compass. In tone material this group shows a difference from the Mide' and a similarity to certain other groups, 51 per cent of the songs being based on the five-toned scales while the Mide' shows only 33 per cent based on these scales; the allied groups are the woman's dance songs, the songs connected with gifts, and the songs for the entertainment of children, 50 per cent of each being on the five-toned scales. The proportion of songs containing only the tones of the major triad and sixth is the largest except in the pipe dance, constituting 26 per cent of the number. The proportion of songs con- taining the octave complete except the seventh is only 2 per cent, in contrast with 14 per cent in the Mide'. The dream songs differ

densmore] CHIPPEWA MUSIC — 11 39

widely iii structure from the Mide' songs, 49 per cent being harmonic and 16 per cent melodic mth harmonic framework (a class in wliicli many songs are harmonic except for one measure) ; thus, 65 per cent of the dream songs are harmonic in feeling, compared with 23 per cent in the Mde' and 44 per cent in the war songs. In the proportion of songs beginning with a downward progression this group is next to the Alide', 77 per cent beginning thus. In total number of downward progressions this group shows 66 per cent, the same as the woman's dance songs and the songs connected with gifts. The proportion of minor thirds in both ascending and descending progression is much larger in this than in any other group . The average interval is the same as in the woman's dance — 3.1 semitones, this being also the average interval of the entire series. The beginnings of these songs are more direct than in the ]\Iide', 74 per cent beginning on the accented part of the measure, contrasted with 47 per cent in the Mde', while the proportion of songs beginning in double time is larger tlian in either the Mide' or the war songs, comprising 55 per cent of the number. The time is more variable in this than in any other group except the unclassified songs, 94 per cent of the songs containing a change of time. A triple drum-rhythm is found in 62 per cent, the same percentage as in the songs connected with gifts. A rhythmic unit occurs in a majority of the songs. Both voice and drum have in general a rapid metric unit ; in 52 per cent the drum is faster than the voice, a larger proportion than in any except the moccasin game songs.

The structure of the dream songs is more centralized than that of the ^Iide' songs, the harmonic form and the large percentage of songs on the five-toncd scales referring the tones distinctly to a keynote. In a general sense it may be said that the Mide' songs were used for the purpose of affecting persons other than the singers, while in the dream songs constituting this group (with the exception of the "doctor's songs") the purpose was to secure an advantage more or less personal. The analysis shows that in some respects this group resembles the Mide' songs and in other respects shows similarity to the songs of the woman's dance and the songs connected with gifts. The dream songs are even more strongly marked by major tonality than are those of the ]\Iide', which they resemble in the prominence of the dominant, but they are different from the IVIide' and allied to the songs of tlie woman's dance and the songs connected with gifts, in the harmonic form, the proportion of songs on the five-toned scales, the proportion of upward and downward progressions, the average interval, the accented beginning, and the triple drum-rhythm.

The rhythmic units occurring in the dream songs are given on pages 314-317.

40 BUEEAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 53

WAR SONGS (MIGA'dIWIN' NA'GUMOWi'NUN)

This group comprises Nos. 122-132 and 154-172 in Bulletin 45, and Nos. 1-50, 63-66, and 80-93 of the present work. On the warpath these songs wore accompanied by a small drum (see pi. 7). At the dances in the village, preceding the departure and after the return of a war party, a large drum was used and the drummers were seated around it. In recent years the war songs are sung at the social dances of the tribe, accompanied by a drum similar to that used in the Drum-presentation Ceremony (see pi. 18), but, according to the writer's observation, less elaborately decorated.

The war songs are of four kinds — the dream songs of individual warriors, the songs i'oncerning war charms and medicines (these two having a connection with the supernatural element), the songs of the conduct of the war expedition, and those which commemorated its success (the last having no supernatural element) . It is said that "in the old days no warrior would have dared sing a war song that was not composed in a dream," referring of course to the first two classes of war songs. The third class includes the songs of the war messenger, the dog feast, and the departure of the war party, and the fourth class includes the songs which were composed by a returning war party or in the victory dances which followed a successful expedition. The boundaries between these classes of songs are not strongly marked, and this division should be understood therefore as general in character.

Fifty per cent of the war songs are major in tonality, the same proportion as in the songs for the entertainment of children. The proportion of war songs beginning on the octave is 27 per cent, the largest of any except the love songs. Seventy per cent of the songs end on the tonic, the same proportion as in the woman's dance, but larger than in the Mide' or in the dream songs. Seventy-six per cent of the songs have a compass of ten or more tones, being exceeded only by the dream and the moccasin game songs, which contain 77 per cent having that range. The percentage of songs on the five-toned scales is less than that of five other groups, but the proportion of songs containing the octave complete except the seventh is larger than in any other group except the Mide' and the begging dance. The sixth lowered a semitone occurs more frequently in this than in any other group. The purely melodic songs comprise 56 per cent, and the allied class of melodic songs with harmonic framework comprise 25 per cent, showing the war songs to be largely melodic in structure, the proportion being exceeded only in the love songs, woman's dance songs, and songs for the entertainment of children. In 66 per cent of the songs the first progression is downward. The number of intervals of a second is much above the average, showing freedom of melodic

DENSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC — II 41

movement. The average interval is one- tenth of a semitone below the average interval of the entire series of songs. Fifty-one per cent of the songs begin in double time, but this is not steadily maintained, 66 per cent of the songs containing a change of time. The triple rhythm is said to be the drum-rhythm of the victory dance, commonly known as the scalp dance; but this is fountl in only 35 per cent of the war songs, 42 per cent showing the even beats which characterize the Mde' (see footnote, p. 10). Seventy-one per cent contain a rhythmic unit, the largest proportion except in the IMide'. The metric unit of the voice is rapid, and that of the drum is of medium rapidity; the drum is faster than the voice in only 44 per cent of the songs, the same proportion as in the begging dance and the woman's dance, and much less than in the Mide' and the dream songs.

The group of war songs is probably less homogeneous than any other, and . its correspondences to other groups are diverse. The relation to the !Mide' songs seems stronger than any other, being both melodic and rhythmic; there is also a melodic correspondence with the dream songs, the relation to these two groups bemg attributable to the common element of communication with the supernatural. Both the Mide' and war songs are principally melodic in structure, but the feeling is for the dominant in the former antl for the tonic and its octave in the latter. Definiteness of idea and assurance of success are suggested by the ])rominence of the rhythmic unit and the major tonality. The correspondence with the woman's dance may come from the fact that this dance was a favorite one during the periods of peace between the Chippewa and the Sioux. It was said to have been given to the Chippewa by the Sioux. The begging dance also was received from the Sioux, and with that group the war songs show both melodic and rhythmic correspondence. The relation to the moccasin game songs is only in the compass, which may be attributed to the element of excitement in both groups; this element does not affect, liowever, the tempo of the war songs or the relative speed of voice and drum, as it appears to do in the moccasin game songs. Regarded as a whole, the characteristics of the war songs are control, definiteness, and a strong centralization, the melody tones being referable to a keynote in a greater degree than in many other groups of songs.

The rhythmic units occurring in the war songs will be found on pages 318-325.

LOVE SONGS (SA'Gli'DIWIN' Na'gUMOWi'nUN)

This group comprises Nos. 133-141 and 163-167 of Bulletin 45 and Nos. 105-113, 157-160, 170, 177, and 178 of the present work, the ''love-charm songs " of the Mde' not being included. The love songs were unaccompanied by any instrument, but lovers frequently played

4^ BIJBEAU OF AMERICAK ETHNOLOGY [bull. 53

on a musical instrument commonly called a flute, but similar in construction to a flageolet, being blown at the end instead of at the side.^ The instrument is called hibl'gwiln. (See pi. 2.) This instrument was procured at Lac du Flambeau, from a middle-aged woman, who said it had belonged to her grandfather. It is 2 1 ^ inches long and \ inches in diameter. A test of the mstrument shows its lowest tone to be about a quarter tone above G, second line, treble clef; in the octave above this the tones are clear, but in the second octave the mstrument does not respond. It is worthy of note that the fourth produced by this instrument was less accurate than other intervals and that the seventh was very faulty and not a clear tone. Uncertain intonation on the fourth and seventh is noted in Bulletin 45, pages 4-5. The following melody, played on this instrument, was furnished by Rev. C. H. Beaulieu; it is said to be very old.

^=i^JT^j-^^r^jf^

Attention is directed to the prominence of the subdominant, which has been found to characterize 11 per cent of the love songs (see No. 106).

The love songs of the Chippewa are plaintive in character, usually expressmg sadness and disappointment. Thirty of these songs have been recorded and only one of this number is inspu'ed by happiness (No. 177). The words of seven are not transcribed. In most instances the words, which are continuous throughout the melody, were not accurately repeated in the repetitions of the songs, but it has usually been possible to give a free translation indicating the character of the words. Only one love song expresses a promise and one a request, six concern the departure of a lover, and five concern loss and longmg. Two express jealousy and offense, two fickbness, and two relate to an attempt to drown disappointment in drink. It has been already stated that the words of the love songs are sometimes impromptu, and that new words are sometimes fitted to old tunes, the general idea remaining the same. Expression by means of a combination of words and music is much more free in the love songs than in any other group, and they may be said to constitute a distinct phase of musical culture and practice.

Although these songs are indicative of an unhappy state of mind, 40 per cent of them arc major in tonality. In this group the percentage of songs beginning on the octave is larger tlian in any other except the war songs. Eighty-six per cent begin on either the tonic, octave, or dominant, nearest to this being the songs of the begging dance, which show 85 per cent, and of the moccasin game, 84 per cent.

1 Contributions to the History of Musical Scales, by Charles Kasson Wead, in Report TI. S. National

Museum, 1900, p. 426; Washington, 1902.

deksmork] CHIPPEWA MUSIC — II 43

The proportion of songs ending on either the tonic or dominant is 93 per cent, larger than in any other group except the pipe dance songs and the songs for the entertainment of children. Ninety-seven per cent of the love songs have a compass of an octave or more, and four songs have a range of 14 tones.

The love songs have the highest percentage among songs containing all the tones of the octave, the begging dance songs ranking next; ths omitted seventh, which characterizes the war songs, docs not appear in this group, and the octave complete except the second occurs in 17 ])er cent of the number. The fivc-toned scales appear less frequently in this than in any other group. In accidentals the sixth is sharj^ed more often than in any other group; the flat third, which we are accustomed to connect with the idea of sadness, does not appear, and the flatted sixth occurs only twice. Two songs have the third omitted, a peculiarity found to exist in several songs concerning women (see analysis of No. ,5.3). Ninety-three per cent of the songs are purely melodic in structure, a proportion much higher than in any group except the woman's dance (100 per cent), the group nearest it being the songs for the entertamment of children, which contains 87 per cent of melodic songs. Half the love songs begin with an upward and half with a downward progression, the ])roportion being the same in the woman's dance, tlie gift songs, and the songs for the entertainment of children. The love songs, so eminently songs of sadness, contain a smaller })ercentage of minor thirds (in both ascending and descentling progression) than any other group. The pro- portion of ascending fifths is much larger than in any other group, aud seven ascending intervals of a twelfth are found, showing, as in the precedmg Tables, a strong feeling for the dominant. The average interval Ls 3.4 semitones, the highest except in the moccasin game and tlu'. pipe dance songs, two classes comprising songs of a high degree of excitement, in whicli the average interval is 3.5. In contrast to this the metric unit of the voice is slow. The proportion of songs containing a change of time is much above tlie average, and most of the songs do not contam a rhythmic unit.

The interval of the twelfth is prominent, showing a feeling for the second overtone as in the IMide'; it will be recalled that the war songs show the first overtone, which is the octave. Completeness and freedom of expression are suggested by the melodic form, the large com- pass, and the use of all the tones of the octave; an element of excitement by the largeness of the average interval, and an element of control by the slow metric unit, while a lack of definitely formed thought is suggested by the small percentage containing a rhythmic unit.

For the rhythmic units occurring in the love songs see pages 325-327.

44 BUREAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 53

MOCCASIN GAME SONGS (mAKIZIN'aTA'dIWIN' NA^GUMOWI^NUn)

This group comprises Nos. 142-145 and 168-176 of Bulletin 45, and Nos. 125, 126, 161-163, and 176 of the present work. It is said that in the old days most of the moccasin game songs were "composed in dreams" but only a few such are included in this series.

The instrument used to accompany these songs is a drum, specimens of which vary but little in size, provided usually with deersldn heads (see pi. 3).^ With this drum is used an ordinary short drumstick the end of which is wound with cloth. Small pieces of tin are sometimes set in the frame of the moccasin game drum, to add a jingling effect.

In the analysis of these songs may be noted a large proportion in minor tonality, exceeded only by the songs of the woman's dance and the songs connected with gifts. Eighty-four per cent begin on, and all end on, either the tonic or dominant. None of the songs have a compass of less than an octave, resembling in this respect the woman's dance and the pipe dance songs. One-third of the songs are on the second five-toned scale, this being the largest proportion in the entire collection, the closest approximation being the woman's dance songs. The several five-toned scah^s comprise 43 per cent of the entu'e number, and apart fi-om these the group presents a wide range of tone material. Oidy one song contains an accidental — the flat sixth. Forty-two per cxnit of tlie songs are harmonic in structure, the group being exceeded in this respect ^nly by the dream songs. The percentage of descending minor thirds is below the average, notwith- standing so large a pro})ortion of the songs is minor in tonality, this group resembling the love songs in this respect. The average interval, which is the same as in the pipe dance (3.5 semitones), is the largest in the entire series. Eighty-nine per cent of the moccasin game songs begin on the accented part of the measure, being exceeded in this respect only by the woman's dance songs with 90 per cent, and by the pipe dance songs with 100 per cent. With the exception of the woman's dance and the gift songs this group maintains the time throughout the song more steadily than any other group, a feature which is surprising in view of the excitement of the game. Thirtythree per cent of the songs contain a rhythmic unit, the percentage of songs in the entire series containing such unit bemg 62. In this the moccasin game songs are seen to be below the average, songs for

1 The instrument here illustrated was obtained at White Earth; it is said to be very old. The cover has been renewed from time to time, the design being duplicated on the new cover, as in the instance of Odjib'we's war drum (p. 62). The diameter of the drum shown in plate 3 is ISi inches, the thickness 2i inches. A single piece of deerskin forms both heads; this is sewed with strips of hide on v/hich some of the hair remains. Inside the drum are three tightly stretched cords, each provided with small pegs tied at equal distances. At the writer's request the former owner of the drum fastened a cord across an ordinary hoop (pi. 3) in the same manner as the cords are fastened inside the drum. The pegs are tied to the cord and before the cover of the drum is put in place the cord is twisted to increase the tension, permitting the pegs to vibrate against the deerskin.

MOCCASIN GAME DRUM

The upper figure =r,ows the arrangement of one of the three cords in witri the pegs fastened thereto.

side the drum together

DHNSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 45

the entertainme.nt of children (38 per cent having a rhythmic unit) ranking next. The rhythmic unit appears to represent a definitely formed thought and conveys that impression to the hearer. In this connection it will be noted that the chief concern of the moccasin game player is to give no clue to his thought, thus mentally eluding his opponents. A wide range is shown in the speed of both voice and drum, and in comparing the metric units of the two it is found that the drum is faster than the voice in 82 per cent of the songs, the percentage for the entire series being only 46.

Thus the moccasin game songs constitute a group which in some phases of analysis shows itself allied to the groups of tlance songs (the woman's dance, the pipe dance, and the begging dance), though its songs were never used in dances. This resemblance is in the form of the song, not in the rhythm of the drum, which is peculiar to the moccasin game. It will be recalled that many dream songs and war songs were used in dances and that the phonograph records of those songs show a drum-rhythm similar to that of these three groups of dance songs, but many of the war songs and all the dream songs were essentially personal in character. The social element was strong in the moccasin game and in these three kinds of dances. The woman's dance and the beggmg dance were open to all the men and women, and the pipe dance is said to have been ''the principal good-time dance" of the old Chippewa. In similar if not greater degree a moccasin game was a center of interest in the camp; it is said that "the whole tribe" always gathered around the players, watching the game and betting on the result. Thus the social element may be said to be the point of contact between the moccasin game and the dance groups. A resemblance to the love songs may be noted in the seeming discrepancy between the tonality and the character of the intervals. Perhaps it may be said that the^e two groups have in common a certain elusiveness and whimsical changeableness. Directness is shown in the accentetl begumings of the songs and their endings on the tonic, but this is contradicted by the small percentage of songs containing a rhythmic unit. The rhythm of the drum is the usual moccasin game rhythm (see No. 125).

The rhythmic units occurring in the moccasin game songs are given on pages 327-328.

woman's dance songs (ikwe'nimiwin' na'gumowi'nun)

This group comprises Nos. 177-185 of Bulletin 45 and No. 164 of the present work.

The woman's dance is a social dance in which an invitation is usually accompanied by a gift. This dance is described in Bulletin 45 (p. 192) and is illustrated in plate 45 of the present work. The dance i§ said to have been acquired long ago from the Sioux, but the

songs ill this collection are supposed to have been composed by Chippewa. The drum used to accompany the woman's dance is the large drum similar to that used in the Drum-presentation Ceremony but less elaborately decorated.

Seventy per cent of the woman's songs are minor in tonality, this being the largest proportion of any group except the gift songs, which show 75 per cent. Half the songs begin on the dominant and one-fifth begin on the octave above the tonic. The proportion ending on the tonic exceeds the average of the series. Forty per cent have a range of an octave, and 40 per cent a range of a twelfth, this being the highest percentage in the group. Half the songs are on the five-toned scales', this proportion being the same as in the gift songs and in the songs for the entertainment of children. Only one song contains an accidental, and all the songs are purely melodic in structure, the love songs (93 per cent) being the nearest rivals in this respect. The upward and downward progressions are evenly divided, as in the love songs and in those for the entertainment of children. One-fourth of the intervals, in both ascending and descending progression, are minor thirds. It will be recalled that the moccasin game songs, with almost the same proportion of minor tonality, do not show so great prominence of minor thirds. The average interval is the same as the average for the entire series — 3.1 semitones, the same interval being shown by the dream songs. In definiteness of beginning these songs exceed all excei)t the songs of the pii)e dance, 90 per cent beginning on the accented part of the measure. Continuity of measure-lengths is greater in this group than in any other, 40 per cent of the songs showing no change of time. The triple drum-rhythm occurs with all the songs. Considering the definiteness of beginning, the large proportion of songs ending on the tonic, and the steadily maintained length of the measures, it is surprising to find that the proportion of songs containing a rhythmic unit is the smallest except in songs of the moccasin game and for entertainment of children. The proportion of songs having the same metric unit of voice and drum is largest except in the pipe dance.

The rhythm of the woman's dance songs is particularly "catchy" and pleasing, but the element of what might be termed intellectuality does not enter into this merrymaking, and perhaps this lack is one of the factors essential to the development of a song from a small group of tones. In tonality we note a correspondence with the gift songs and recall that gifts were an important feature of the woman's dance. Simple pleasure allied this group to that of the pipe dance songs and the songs for the entertainment of children, and some corresponding characteristics are shown by the analysis.

The rhythmic imits occurring in the woman's dance songs will be found on page 328.

DENSMORB] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 47

BEGGING DANCE SONGS (bAGOSAN'nINGE'nIMIWIN' NA'gUMOWI'NUN)

This group comprises Nos. 187 and 188 of Bulletin 45. and Nos. 114-118 of the present work.

The begging dance, like the woman's dance, is said to have been derived from the Sioux. In the writer's observation of this dance among both Chippewa and Sioux the large drum is used; this is carried by two or three men as the begging party goes from tent to tent. This dance is described in Bulletin 45 (p. 171) and its traditional origin is given on page 228 of the present work.

The percentage of these songs in major tonality is 72, the same as in the Mide' and 4 per cent less than in the dream songs. Seventyone per cent begin on the dominant, resembling the ]\llde' songs, in which 70 per cent begin on the dominant. Fourteen per cent only begin on the tonic. The proportion of songs ending on the tonic is 24 per cent below the average (see Tables 2 and 3), indicating a slight feeling for the keynote. The percentage of songs beginning on the ninth is almost double that in any other group. The ninth is usually a tone of approach to the octave. The number of songs on the five-toned scales and the number with the octave complete except the seventh are equal. Only one song contains an accidental, and 72 per cent are purely melodic in structure, this being 6 per cent above the average. The percentage of downward progression is 67, the same as in the Mide', and the largest in the entire series. The percentage of ascending fourths is the largest in the series except in the i^ipe dance. This interval has been found to characterize songs concerning motion; it is considered in the analysis of song No. 22. The average interval of this group is the same as in the Mide', and is the smallest in the entire series except in the songs connected with gifts. The percentage of songs beginning in double time is the largest except in the pipe dance and the songs for the entertainment of children, and the time is more steadily maintained than in any except these groups and the unclassified songs. A small proportion of these songs contains a rhythmic unit, the related groups being the woman's dance and the songs for the entertainment of children. The number of songs having the same metric unit of voice and drum is the same as the number in wliich the drum is faster than the voice.

In the analysis of the Mide' songs a similarity between that group and the songs of the begging dance was noted and some correspondence of motive was traced. In the analysis of the begging dance songs are found similarities to the songs of the pipe dance and the woman's dance, the songs for the entertainment of children, and the songs connected with gifts; and some similarity of motive also can be traced between these groups. The purpose of the begging dance was, of course, the securing of gifts. Underlying the other

three classes of songs is a strong element of pleasure and simple amusement. The woman's dance, with its exchange of gifts, is greatly enjoyed by the Chippewa, much interest surrounding the "return present," as everyone who is given a present is expected to return one of equal value. The pipe dance is a ludicrous pantomime, and the songs for the entertainment of children usually end in laughter. The element of pleasure is equally strong in the begging dance. The writer has seen a merry party going from tent to tent, singing the begging dance songs. This dance forms the great recreation in a camp. There is the discomfiture of the people who are not prepared with proper gifts of food (the recollection comes to the writer of a woman running after a begging dance party with a pail of maple sugar which she could not find when they were at her tent), and there is the pleasure of forcing people to give who are not disposed to be generous. Added to these factors is the delightful uncertainty as to the nature of the food to be bestowed and the pleasant anticipation of the varied feast to follow. No one acquainted with a Chippewa or a Sioux camp would be surprised at the resemblances shown in this analysis.

The rhythmic units of the begging dance songs are given on page 329.

PIPE DANCE SONGS (oPWA'gUNINI'mININ NA'gUMOWI'NUN)

This group comprises Nos. 171, 172, and 173 of the present work.

The pipe dance was performed solely for the merriment of the tribe. In its original form it passed out of existence long ago and only a few of its songs reniam. The number of songs in this group is so smaU that the percentages are less significant than in other groups, but some general characteristics of the songs are shown by their analysis.

Most of the songs are major in tonality and begin on the third, but all end on the tonic. One song has a range of but four tones, the only one having a similar range being a dream song. The major triad forms the framework of two-thirds of the songs, none contam an accidental, two-thirds are purely melodic, and the downward progressions are much greater in number than the upward. The average interval is the same as in the moccasin game songs and the element of excitement was probably almost as great in one as in the other. All the songs begin on the accented part of the measure, all begin in double time, and all show a change of time. Two-thirds of the songs contain a rhythmic unit. Considering the element of excitement in the dance, it is surprising to find the metric unit of A^oice and drum the same in all the songs, none of the other groups showing a percentage of more than 56. This can scarcely be regarded as an original feature of the pipe dance music, but may suggest the mental attitude of the Indian at the present time.

For the rhythmic units occurring iii these songs .^ee page 329.

DENSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 49

SONGS CONNECTED WITH GIFTS

(mi' CINE, ma'moya'ne, na'gumowi'nun)

This group comprises jSTos. 151-153 and 189-191 in Bulletin 45, and Xos. 123, 124 of the present work. These are the songs which accompany gifts, usually the gift of a pony, and are sung by the recipient or giver, together with the singers at the drum. The songs are used in the social dances. Three-fourths of the songs are minor in tonality, and one begins in major tonality but changes to minor by lowering the third and sixth a semitone, the keynote remaining the same. Half of these songs begin on the keynote, and half end on the tonic. Eighty-eight per cent of them have a compass of an octave or more, the allied groups being the moccasin game, woman's dance, and begging dance. Half the songs are on the five-toned scales, as in the woman's dance and the songs for the entertainment of children, and all contain the tonic triad. Only one song contains an accidental and in this the second is lowered a semitone. Sixty-two per cent of the songs are purely melodic in structure. Half begin with a downward progression, the same proportion occurring in the songs of the woman's dance and the songs for the entertainment of children. The minor third constitutes more than one-fourth of the intervals in both ascending and descending progression. The average interval is the smallest in the entire series, being only 2.2 semitones. Eighty-seven per cent of the songs begin on the accented part of the measure, a proportion exceeded only by the songs of the moccasin game, the woman's dance, and the pipe dance. Sixty-three per cent begin in 2-4 time and contain a change of time. The drum-rhythm is that of the social dance. The percentage of songs containing a rhythmic unit is the same as that of the entire series. In half the songs the metric unit of voice and drum is the same, and in half the voice is faster than the drum.

The rhythmic units occurring in these songs are given on pages 329-330.

SONGS FOR THE E;^TERTAINMENT OF CHILDREN

(a'dizo'ke na'gumowi'nun)

This group comprises Nos. 149 and 197 in Bulletin 45 and Nos. 51-53, 127, 179, and 180 of the present work. Nos. 149 of Bidletin 45 and No. 127 in this vohime represent different versions of the same song, recorded on widely separated reservations, which present some differences on analysis. It wiU be noted that, with the exception of the lullaby, all these songs are characterized by a marked sense of humor and usually mimic the interests and occupations of the tribe.

Half these songs are major and half are minor in tonality; half begin on the tonic and three-fourths end on the tonic. Two songs (i7996°— BuU. 53—13 i

50 BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 53

are on the fifth five-toned scale and two on the fourth five-toned scale, these comprising half the group. From two of the songs the third is omitted (see analysis of No. 53). None of these songs contain an accidental and S7 per cent are purely melodic in structure. Half begin with a downward and half witii an upward progression. The minor third is especially prominent in the descending intervals. The average interval is tlie same as in the war songs, and we note that three of these songs are concerned with a child's game of war and one with war between animals. Half the songs begin on tlie accented and half on the unaccented part of the measure. Threefourths begin in 2-4 time and the percentage of songs marked by a change of time is the largest except in the dream songs, the pipe dance songs, and the unclassified songs. Sixty-two per cent contain no rhythmic unit, this proportion being exceeded only in the moccasin game songs. In the rendermg of these songs, as well as in those of the moccasin game, a high degree of excitement prevails. Most of the songs were recorded without the drum; in one song drum and voice show the same metric unit, wliile in another the drum is slower than the voice.

The rhythmic units occurrmg in these songs will be found on page 330.

UNCLASSIFIED SONGS

This group comprises tlie following songs: Nos. 146, 147, 148, 150, 186, and 192-196 in Bulletin 45, and Nos. 67, 68, 119-122, 165-169 of the present work. These songs present a mde variety of interest, including s-ongs of the ca'wfmo'ga (southern) dance, the divorce ceremony, the friendly visit of one band to another, and a song concerning an historical incident. As the topics of the songs are so diverse it does not seem expedient to consider the group as a unit. The rhythmic units found in the songs are, however, of interest (see pp. 330-332).

melodic and rhythmic resemblances between song groups (based on tables 1-22)

The preceding analysis suggests connection between the idea of the song and its musical form, and also indicates resemblance between groups of songs containing a somewhat similar idea. Tables (pp. 51-58) have been prepared in order that these resemblances may be more conveniently observed. For instance, it will be noted that the Mide' songs resemble the begging dance songs, the idea common to both being desire for acquirement, in the former for the acquirement of supernatural power and in the latter for gifts of food. Turning to the analysis of the begging dance songs, they are found to be allied to the three groups of songs in which the element of pleasure is strongest — the songs of the woman's dance, the pipe dance, and those for the

PExsMOHE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 51

entertainment of children, the begging dance combining the idea of acquirement with that of pleasure. It may be noted also that the beggmg dance and the pipe dance songs have in common a large proportion of intervals of the ascending fourth, which have been found to characterize songs concerning motion (see No. 22), and it is recalled that the persons engaged m the begging dance made the circuit of the entire camp and that the pipe dance was a contortion dance. Turning to the anal3"sis of the songs for the entertainment of children, we find that group allied to the pleasure songs and also to the war songs, and recall that one-half the songs of this group relate to mimic warfare or warfare between animals.

From further study of structural resem])lances between groups of Indian songs it may be possible to ascertain whether a rhythmic unit is usuall}^ found in songs of definitely formed thought, whether a feeling for the tonic and its octave is strongest m subjective songs, and to throw light on other peculiarities suggested as subjects of more extended investigation by this comparative analysis of the content and form of Chippewa songs.

Tabulated Analysis of Resemblances

1. mide' songs

General motive of songs: The securing of a definite result through supernatural power, the person affected being usually some one other than the singer.

Melodic resemblances of Mlde' songs to — Dream Songs

a, In major tonality

6, In proportion of songs beginning on octave

c, In proportion of songs ending on tonic

d, In compass of twelfth

e, In first progression downward Love Songs

In purely melodic structure Woman's Dance Songs

In purely melodic structure Begging Dance Songs

a, In major tonality

&, In proportion of songs beginning on dominant

c, In proportion of songs containing octave complete except

seventh

d, In proportion of downward progressions

e, In average interval

Songs for the Entertainment of Children In purely melodic structur<?

52 BUREAU OF AMERICAlSr ETHNOLOGY [bull. 53

Rhythmic resemblances of M%de' songs to — Dream Songs

In proportion of songs in wliicli drum is faster than voice Certain kinds of War Songs

In double drum-rliytlim Moccasin Game Songs

In proportion of songs in which drum is faster than voice

2. DREAM SONGS

General motive of songs: The securing of supernatural aid in personal undertakings.

Melodic resemhlances of dream songs to — Mide' Songs

a, In major tonality

h, In proportion of songs beginning on octave

c, In proportion of songs ending on tonic

d, In compass of twelfth

e, In first progression downward Love Songs

In proportion beginning on twelfth Moccasin Game Songs

In harmonic structure Woman's Dance Songs

a, In five-toned scales

6, In compass of twelfth

c. In proportion of downward progressions

d, In average interval Begging Dance Songs

In major tonality Pipe Dance Songs

a, In proportion containing major triad and sixth

h, In songs having compass of four tones Songs Connected with Gifts

In five-toned scales Songs for the Entertaiimient of Children

a, In five-toned scales

h, In proportion of downward progressions

Rhythmic resemhlances of dream songs to — ' Mide' Songs

In proportion of songs in which drum is faster than voice Songs Connected with Gifts Jn triple drum-rhythm

densmore] CHIPPEWA MUSIC — II 53

3. WAR SONGS

General character of songs: (1) Dream songs of individual warriors; (2) Songs concerning war medicines; (3) Songs incidental to a war expedition; (4) Songs concerning success on the warpath.

Melodic resemblances of war songs to — Mide' Songs

In proportion of songs containing octave complete except seventh Dream Songs

In compass Love Songs

a, In proportion of songs beginning on octave

h, In melodic structure Moccasin Game Songs

In compass Woman's Dance Songs

a, In proportion of songs ending on tonic

h, In melodic structure Songs for the Entertainment of Children

a, In equal major and minor tonality

h, In melodic structure

Rhythmic resemblances of war songs to — Mide' Songs

In double drum-rhythm (of certain classes of war songs) Begging Dance Songs

In proportion having drum faster than voice

4. LOVE SONGS

Generalcharacter of songs: The expression of disappointment, loneliness, and sadness.

Melodic resemblances of love songs to — Mide' Songs

In melodic structure Dream Songs

In proportion of songs beginning on twelfth War Songs

a, In proportion of songs beginning on octave

b, In melodic structure Moccasin Game Songs

a, In proportion of songs beginning on tonic, octave, or

dominant

b, In average interval

64 Bureau op American ethnology [bull. 53

Melodic resemblances of love songs to — Woman's Dance Songs

a, In relative proportion of downward and upward progressions h, In melodic structure Begging Dance Songs

a, In proportion of songs beginning on tonic, octave, or

dominant h, In compass of an octave Pipe Dance Songs

a, In proportion of songs ending on tonic or dominant 1), In average interval Songs Connected witli Gifts

In relative number of downward and upward progressions •

Songs for the Entertainment of Children

a, In proportion of songs ending on tonic or dominant h, In relative ])r()portion of downward and upward progressions M Rhythmic reseinblances of love songs to — ■ Beggmg Dance Songs In change of time Songs for the Entertainment of Children In change of time

5. MOCCASIN GAME SONGS

Elements in moccasin game: Controlled excitement, desire for success and gain, pleasure, and confidence in supernatural aid.

Melodic resemblances of moccasin game songs to — Dream Songs

In harmonic structure Love Songs

In number of songs ])eginning on tonic, octave, or dominant Woman's Dance Songs

a, In minor tonality

b, In second five-toned scale

c, In compass Pipe Dance Songs

In average interval Songs Connected with Gifts

^fc)

In minor tonality

dhnsmoreJ Chippewa music — ii 55

Rhythmic resenihlances of moccasin game songs to — Mide' Songs

In proportion of songs in which (h'lim is faster than voice Woman's Dance Songs

a, In proportion of songs beginning on accented part of measure

J), In time steadily maintained Pipe Dance Songs

In number of songs beginning on accented part of measure Songs Connected with Gifts

In time steadily maintained Songs for the Entertainment of Children

In rhythmic imit

6. woman's dance songs

Elements in the dance: Pleasure and securing the gifts offered with the invitation to dance.

Melodic resemblances ofivoman^s dance songs to — ■ Mide' Songs

In melodic structure Dream Songs

a, In five-toned scales

h, In compass of twelfth

c, In proportion of downward progressions

d, In average interval Love Songs

a, In melodic structure

h, In proportion of downward and upward progressions Songs Connected with Gifts

a, In minor tonality

h, In five-toned scales

c, In relative number of downward and upward progressions Songs for the Entertainment of Children

a, In five-toned scales

h, In proportion of downward and upward progressions

Rhythmic resemblances of woman^s dance songs to — Moccasin Game Songs

In time steadily maintained Pipe Dance Songs

In number of songs beginning on accented part of measure Songs Connected with Gifts

In time steadily maintained Songs for the Entertainment of Children

In rhythmic unit

7. BEGGING DANCE SONGS

Elements in the dance: Pleasure and acquirement.

Melodic resemhlances of legging dance songs to — Mide' Songs

a, In major tonality

h, In proportion of songs beginning on dominant

c, In proportion of songs containing octave complete except

seventh

d, In proportion of downward progressions

g, In average interval J

Dream Songs

In major tonality Love Songs

In proportion of songs beginning on tonic, octave, or dominant Pipe Dance Songs

In number of ascending fourths

Rhythmic resemhlances of begging dance songs to — • Woman's Dance Songs

In rhythmic unit Songs for the Entertainment of Children

a, In proportion of songs begmning in double time

h, In rhythmic unit

8. PIPE DANCE SONGS

Elements in the dance: Ludicrous pantomime and contortion.

Melodic resemhlances of pipe dance songs to — Dream Songs

a, In proportion of songs containing major triad and sixth

h, In songs having compass of four tones Love Songs

a, In proportion of songs ending on tonic or dominant

h, In average interval Moccasin Game Songs

In average interval

Rhythmic resemhlances of pipe dance songs to — • Moccasin Game Songs

In proportion of songs beginning on accented part of measure Woman's Dance Songs

In proportion of songs beginning on accented part of measure

densmore] CHIPPEWA MUSIC — 11 6Y

9. SONGS CONNECTED WITH GIFTS

Comprising songs which are sung when a gift of considerable vahie is given or received at a social dance.

Melodic resetnhlances of songs connected with gifts to — Dream Songs

In five-toned scales Love Songs

In proportion of downward and upward progressions Moccasin Game Songs

In minor tonality Woman's Dance Songs

a, In minor tonality

b, In five-toned scales

c, In pro})ortion of downward and upward progressions

EhytJimic resemblances of songs connected with gifts to — Dream Songs

In triple drum-rhythm Moccasin Game Songs

In time steadily maintained Woman's Dance Songs

In time steadily maintained

10. SONGS FOR THE ENTERTAINMENT OP CHILDREN

Comprising songs of mimic warfare and of warfare l)etween animals— two songs intended only for amusement, and one lullaby.

Melodic reseniblances of songs for the entertainment of children to — Mide' Songs

In melodic structure Dream Songs

a, In five-toned scales

h, In proportion of downward progressions War Songs

a, In equal major and minor tonality

h, In melodic structure Love Songs

a, In proportion of songs ending on tonic or dominant

h, In melodic structure

c, In proportion of downward and upward progressions Woman's Dance Songs

a, In five-toned scales

h, In proportion of downward and upward progressions

BUREAU 01' AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Rhythmic resemblances of songs for the entertainment of children to- Love Songs

In change of time Moccasin Game Songs

In rhythmic unit Woman's Dance Songs

In rhythmic unit Begging Dance Songs

a, In proportion of songs beginning in (U)uble time

h, In rhythmic unit

WAR SONGS OF THE MISSISSIPPI BAND OF

CHIPPEWA

Odjib'we (pi. 1)/ the last great warrior of the Mississippi Band of Chippewa in Minnesota, sang the songs which were associated with his own expeditions, related the story of his war parties, and described the war customs of his people, so that the white man might know about them when tlie last warrior of the Chippewa should have been forgotten. These songs and narratives constitute the greater part of the following chapter.

At the age of 89 Odjib'we still possessed a voice of unusual strength and sweetness. The first phonographic records of his songs were made in August, 1909. A second set of records was made two weeks later for purposes of comparison, the songs being accurately repeated. At the expiration of several months the entire material was translated into Chippewa for revision by Odjib'we, some new songs were added, and many were sung or recorded a third time. In these repetitions it was noted that certain tones which were shortened or prolonged in the original rendition were similarly shortened or prolonged; also, that a slight sharping or flatting of certain tones was repeated. The records occasionally vary in unimportant melody progressions or in note-values which tlo not afi"ect the length of the measure, and a few songs show changes in words, Odjib'we stating that it is permissible to alter the words, but that the "tune" and the meaning of the words must not be changed.- The original record of a song was not played when securing a repetition, hence the identity of the renditions shows how clearly the melody was retained in the mind of the singer.

1 The name of this warrior is identical with the name of the tribe, the word being applied also to a member of the tribe (singular Odjib'we, plural Odjib'weg). The corrupted form "Chippewa," the only form which seems to have been used in Government publications, has never been adopted by the Indians. Many variants of this name were used by early writers, among those cited being, Achipofe (Perrot, 1671), Ochipoy (York, 1700), Chepeways (Croghan, 1700), Tschipeway (Wrangell, 1839), and Otchipwe (Baraga, 1878). (See Handbook of American lndia.ns, Bull. 30, B . A . £.,pt. 1, pp. 280-281.) In the first volume of treaties pubUshed by the Government the form "Chippewa" appears. (See Indian Treaties and Laws and Regulations relating to Indian affaks, compiled and published under orders of the Department of War, Washington City, 1826.)

The meaning of the word Odjib'we (pronounced Ojib'way) has been a subject of much discussion. (See William H. Keating, in Narrative of an E.xpedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, vol. 2, p. 151, Philadelphia, 1824; Gov. Alexander Ramsey, in Report of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, 1850, p. 83; and William W. Warren, in History of the Ojibways, St. Paul, Minn., 1885, p. 36.) The derivation of the word from a root meaning "to pucker" is established, but the connection of the idea is a matter of dispute. The form of moccasin to which some have attributed the name is shown in plate 36. It is possible that the word Ojibway may have been derived from a place name in the country from which the tribe came many generations ago.

2 See description of song No. 37, p. 119.

Truly Odjib'we wS,s a musician as well as a warrior. More than 70 of his songs were recorded, and these were only part of the melodies at his command. In the long years of his blindness, passed in the Old People's Home at White Earth Agency, Minnesota, he loved to sing. Several of his comrades were there also, and they loved to recall the days when the sweep of the prairie, from horizon to horizon, belonged to the Indian. Niski'gwim (''ruffled feathers")/ who fought beside him in the great struggle at Ca'gobens' village, was also there, and how good it was to talk over the old times! And Maih'gans C' little wolf"), plate 9, was there, too. Although Main'- gans came from Mille Lac, he had lived at Wliite Earth for almost a generation. He, too, loved the old ways and the old songs. Maifi'gans is a cripple, his feet having been frozen when he was a boy, yet he is remarkably active. He attributes his rugged strength to the constant use of a native remedy called the })i'j%kiwuc¥ ("cattle herb medicine"). This is a kind of medicine used by warriors in the old days, and Maih'gans, as his contribution to the war chapter of Chijjpewa music, described this medicine for the writer, secured specimens of the herb, and sang the songs connected with its origin and use. On one occasion Niski'gwun was present when Odjib'we was recording songs and added to the collection his own dream song and one or two others. The songs of the mfi'nlsino'wuck ("island herb medicine") were sung by Na'waji'bigo'kwe ("woman dwelling in the midst of the rocks"), who well remembers when the herbs were dug to make this medicine for the departing warriors. Few persons on the White Earth Keservation are more skilled than she in the lore of native medicines. Personal reminiscences were given also by Meja'kigi'jig (see footnote, p. 83), Ma'djigi'jig ("moving sky"), and A'kiwen'zi ("old man"), all of whom took part in the wars against the Sioux, the two last named fighting under Odjib'we's leadershij). These persons furnished the material in this section.

Odjib'we died in April, 1911. Many of the songs herein preserved were known only to him. He stood alone, his preeminence unquestioned by his tribe throughout northern Minnesota. His hand was never lifted against the white man, but when war was glory he led his people to victory over the Sioux. May he rest in peace.

The final battles in the hereditary warfare between the Chippewa and the Sioux were fought in central Minnesota. This warfare, which began before the tribes became known to the whites, had its origin at the time of the westward migration of the Chippewa (Ojibwa), who found their progress barred by the Dakota, a Siouan tribe. The confhct contmued with intervals of peace until brought to an end by the removal of the Mimiesota Sioux by the United States Government.

1 See pp. 77-79.

HOLE-IN-THE-DAY

DENSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC — II 61

On August 19, 1825, a treaty was negotiated at Prairie du Chien, Michigan Territory,^ in which the Chippewa and the Sioux agreed on a line of demarkation between their territories. Tliis line (surveyed in 1835) extended diagonally across what is now the State of Minnesota from near the site of the present town of Moorhead to a point on the Saint Croix River a few miles above Still water. ^ In spite of the agreement, however, the war parties of both tribes continued to range freely across the boundary line. The last great fight took place in the Minnesota Valley, May 27, 1858, near the site of the present town of Shakopee (see p. 76), but minor encounters between warriors of the two tribes are said to have occurred for some years afterward. Brower makes the following statement: ^

The last formidable Sioux war party, precipitated against the Ojibway nation of Indians, of which there is definite knowledge, proceeded from the Valley of Minnesota River to the Valley of Crow Wing River via. Long Prairie, Minn., in June, 1860. • • • There were about 150 painted, bedecked, and ornamented Indians in the party.

War between Indian tribes was an occupation rather than a calamity. It can not be said to have been strictly tribal in character, according to our understanding of tlie term, since any prominent warrior might persuade his comrades to join him and organize an expedition. There were periods of peace, but as the maintenance of peace depended largely on the self-control of the individual warrior, outbreaks were of frequent occurrence. Often one fight ended an expedition, the warriors returning satisfied if they had taken even one or two scalps. The motive for organizing a war party was usually revenge for a kinsman's death. This motive is inadequately expressed by the word "revenge," for it involved the idea that the death of a Sioux "restored" the man who had been killed by a Sioux. Underneath aU other motives lay tribal pride.. War was a game whose terrible tally must be kept in favor of the Chippewa. To this end war parties were planned and for this purpose they went forth to strike the quick blQW, departing as stealthily as they had come.

Odjib'we was leader of the Chippewa warriors during the time of Bu'gonegi'jig (Hole-in-the-day), plate 4,* the last great chief of the tribe, who was assassinated in 1868. The two men were cousms and theirs was an alliance of the second generation, as the father of Odjib'we was brother of the first Bu'gonegi'jig and led his warriors against the Sioux. Bows and arrows were used in Odjib'wc's earlier battles and neither Sioux nor Chippewa rode upon horses.

1 statutes at Large, vol. 7, p. 272.

2 Eighteenth Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethn., part 2, map 33.

3 J. V. Brower and D. I. Bushnell, jr., Mille Lac, St. Paul, Minn., 1900, p. 97.

< From picture (numbered 67) in collection of photographs of North American Indians, in Descriptive Catalogue of the Photographs nf the United States Geological Survey of the Territories for the years 1869 to 1873, inclusive, by W. H. Jackson, Washington, 1S74.

In generalship Odjib'we was distinguished for sound judgment and steadiness of purpose rather than for reckless darmg. Ills war expeditions were successful and he boasted that he was never wounded by the Sioux.

Odjib'we's prowess won for him the right to wear 11 war-honor feathers, each indicating that he had taken a Sioux scalp; these wore eagle feathers and were worn upright in a band around the head (pi. 5). The writer saw Odjib'we wearing this decoration in a dance several years before his songs were recorded. Tliree of the feathers are notched, and the right to wear these was acquired by killing and scalp mg Sioux; the unnotched feathers indicated that he had scalped Sioux who had been killed by other warriors. The dots of rabbit skin on the feathers indicate the number of bullets in his gun at the time of securing the scalp .^ Bits of once bright ribbon are at the tip of each feather. Odjib'we stated that "four feathers could be counted for the death of each Sioux; one was worn by the man who killed him, one by the man who scalped him, and the others by men who assisted in the scalping."

Odjib'we was entitled to wear also a skunk skin badge (pi. 6) on his right arm. This signified that he once caught a wounded Sioux by the arm, the incident being related in connection with song No. 3. His war club (pi. 7), of birch, has a knot for the head. According to Odjib'we, he had despatched two Sioux with this club. After the wars were over he allowed his friends to blacken it and to decorate it with brass nails. The Chippewa war drum was called ogl'tcida dewe'igHn ("drum of the braves"). The frame of Odjib'w^e's drum is 17^ inches in diameter; it is made of wood with metal rim. The frame is apparently not of native manufacture, but Odjib'we said it was the original. He said that in time of war it frequently became necessary to renew the cover on the drum, but the design was always duplicated on the new cover. The cover shown in the illustration is comparatively recent. The design on Odjib'we's war drum (pi. 7) was explained as follows in the language of the interpreter:

There was a man who invented the use of the drum among the Indians. The lightning is a picture of his dream, and the sound of his drum was like the rumble of the thunder. When We^nabo^jo was wandering around he always sent MicFken ("large turtle") on his errands; so the large turtle came to be considered a greai warrior. When Mici^ken went to war he had Miskwa^des ("small snapping turtle ") as his oc'kahe'uns (messenger). That is why the picture of the lightning and the turtle is on the war drum. The Indians fought with bows and arrows, so a picture of a bow and arrow is also on the drum.

Odjib'we's war shirt was of scarlet flannel (pi. 8). After the wars with the Sioux were ended Odjib'we kept it in a bag woven of cedar

1 All the war paraphernalia of Odjib'we, including these feathers, are now in the National Museum at Washington.

ODJIB'WE'S WAR-HONOR FEATHERS

FRONT BACK

ODJIB'WE'S WAR-HONOR BADGE

ODJiB'WE'S WAR CLUB AND WAR DRUM

CO

z <

p

<

DBNSMORK] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II ' 63

bark, a method of storage generally used among the Chippewa, Several years before his songs were recorded the writer saw the old warrior wearing this shirt in a dance. The decoration is of narrow strips of weasel skin, forming a fringe. The w^easel is a hunter, a wanderer, and a warrior. A well-laiown authority states,^ "I can not learn of any other creature that is more thoroughly possessed of the lust for blood than are these slim-bodied little creatures."

The principal kinds of ''medicine" carried by the Chippewa warriors were hi'jihkvuclc' - ("cattle herb medicine"), mi'nisino'vvicJc ("island herb medicine"), and wa'huno'wuck (" eastern herb medicine"). These medicines were secured by the warriors from the old men of the tribe, usually members of the ^Mide'wiwm (Grand j\Iedicine Society), who made a special study of the compounding of herbs. They were used both externally and internally and were supposed to have efficacy as charms, their mere presence serving as a protection. They were believed also to "counteract the effect of bad medicine carried by the enemy." ^

Bi'jiMvmcV, a medicine which derives its name from the principal ingredient, is commonly used among the Chippewa at tlie present time. It is said to be taken internally as a stimulant and as a cure for fits. It is used also externally as a stimulant and to check the flow of blood from wounds.

According to Main'gans* (pi. 9), the origin of this medicine is as follows :

There was once a Mide^wini'ni [male member of the Mide^wiwin] who dreamed that he saw homed animals resembling cattle, under the water. They came up from the water and talked with him, telling him how to prepare this wonderful medicine. In order to persuade them to return he composed and sang a song (No. 22). He was a young man at the time, but he sang this song until he was old. He sang it whenever he dug the roots or prepared the hi' jikiwiicV . Others learned it from him and now it is always sung when this medicine is prepared.

It was customary for the old men when preparing this medicine to "make noises like cattle"; this was done also when the hi' jikiwuck' songs were sung in war dances (see No. 23).

Main'gans used four ingredients in compounding hi'jikiwucJc' . The number of ingredients was said to vary from two to eight, according to the judgment of the man proparmg the medicine, but the principal herb, that from which the medicine took its nam3, was always present.

1 Witmer Stone and William Gram, A merican Animals, Now York, 1902, p. 237.

2 From bi'jiki and wAck; the former was originally applied to the buffalo (see No. 99), but at the present time signifies "cattle," while the latter means "medirine."

'Of. J. N. B. Hewitt, " Orenda and a Definition of Religion." in American Anthropologist, N. s., iv, no. 1, pp. 40, 41, 1902.

• Main'gans and Odjib'we, treating the sick, are shown in pi. 10, Bulletin 4.').

Specimens of the four herbs used by Main'gans were secured and wei*e identified by Dr. J. N. Rose, Division of Plants, United States National Museum. These herbs are as follows :

(1) Bi'jikiwuck' ("cattle herb")> tlic plant from which the medicine took its name. This was said to be "a plant a few inches high which grows on the prairie toward the west and is sometimes found in sandy soil. The blossoms appear before the leaves, which are not notched but are round in shape; the root is wliite when dried, and is the only part used in making the medicine." The writer asked for a plant in blossom but was given a piece of dried root to which several downy white feathers were fastened (fig. 2). ]\Iain'gans said that he was unable to secure a plant in bloom, and that "the cluster of white feathers was the best he could do, they having the same appearance

as the blossoms, only not so white." The report of Doctor Rose is as follows:

The root is that of Polygala senega L . , Seneca snake-root. ' ' The bark of the root is the most important part of the plant; the ligneous portion is comparatively inert. The root possesses various medicinal virtues. It is a stimulant, diuretic, ex- pectorant, purgative, emetic, and a sudorific. For many years it was used by the Indians of our country as an antidote against the bite of the rattlesnake. According to their practice, it was appUed externally and internally, either chewed and applied to the wound or in the form of a cataplasm. The Indians also use a decoction of tliis root in 6>T)hilis and in malignant sore throat. A decoction of the root has been used with marked success in cases of hydropholiia, with a view to its specific or remarkable operation on the apparent seat of this malady, the lungs, trachea, and larynx."

(2) Bi'j%kiwm'guck, a plant closely allied to the common sagebrush and identified as " Artemisia frlgida Willd."

(3) Bi'jikiwi'hugesa'nug ("cattle plum"), identified as "Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt., or Ground Plum."

(4) Bi'jikiwi'ginig' (" cattle berry ") , identified as ''Rosa arJcansana Porter, or Arkansas Rose."

The roots only are used in preparing the medicine; these are washed, scraped, and dried, and then pounded to a powder in which small shreds still remain. The pruicipal ingredient is prepared and kept separate; the other three herbs are pounded together, equal parts of each being used. Main'gans showed the writer his U'jikiwljicl:' medicine pouch (pi. 10) which he always carries with him.

Fig. 2. Dried root of bi'jtkiwi'ick' with feathers attached .

(.''litilitly reduced)

(Artiuil size)

POUCH AND MEASURE FOR BI'JIKIWUCK'

r.ENRMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 65

This contained a mixture of the tiiree ingredients and a very small tin spoon, such as is used with a child's toy tea set. Held in place by the flap of the pouch was a small tied packet of tlie prmcipal ingredient. Main'gans said that he frequently took a Httle spoonful of the powder from the pouch, and, suiting the action to the word, he took a dose of the medicine to show that it could easily be swallowed without water. On the foUowiiig day, in the writer's presence, he prepared the medicine in liquid form. Taking a pail containing about a quart of hot water, he placed a little spoonful of the three mixed ingredients on the surface of the water at the eastern side of the pail, saying Wa'hunong (' ' at the east ") , then at the southern side, saying Ca'wunong (''at the south"), then at the western and northern sides, saying Ningabi' anofig ("at the west"), and Kiwe'dinong ("at the north"). These words were merely explanatory of his action. The surface of the water was thus dotted with four small patches of powder. He then opened the tied packet of the principal ingredient, took out one scanty spoonful of the contents, and divided it equally among the patches of powder, placing it carefully m the middle of each, begmning with the east as before but not repeathig the names of the cardinal points. The ingredients soon dissolved in the hot water. According to Main'gans the medicme was then ready for use, though some preferred to secure a stronger flavor by boiling it. He said that the taste was agreeable and that the medicine should be taken four times a day, the dose to be small at first and then increased, the full dose bemg taken in a measure (pi. 10) which he gave to the writer. This is made of birch bark and contains about a tablespoonful. The drawmgs on the inside are said to represent animals and to indicate that the measure was to be used for this particular medicine. Main'gans swallowed a portion of the liquid after offering it to the writer.

Ml'nlsino'wuclc ("island herb medicine"), also takes its name from that of its principal ingredient, which was formerly found only at a certain place on Lake Superior, but was discovered thirty years ago at JMille Lac, where it grows in fine, light sand along the shore. The medicine contains eight mgredients, said to be herbs of about the same sort. An herb called "the last ingredient" is found growing in the woods at White Earth.

Na'waji'bigo'kwe said that many years ago the Sioux were "getting too powerful for the Chippewa," and that about that time a man "dreamed of a thunderbird, who told him how to prepare and use this medicine." She related the two following mcidents of her personal experience with mi'nisino'wllclc: In the autumn of IQCO a member of her family was involved in serious and complicated difl&culties. She resolved to help him by means of mi'mslno'wuck.

After searching many weaks in the woods she found at last one little root, not the principal ingredient but all she could find. She took tliis home, "sang and talked and prayed over it," wrapped it in fresh birch bark and put it into the coat pocket of the man who was to be benefited by It, telling him tliat it would help him out of his troubles. To the writer's personal knowledge the man was entirely freed from his difficulties a few weeks later.

Na'waji'bigo'kwe said also that two years before a man while in a diiinken rage had killed his wife. His relatives hastened to Na'waji'- bigo'kwe and asked whether she had any mJi'nisino'wuck. She gave them a small piece of the root, which the man carried in his pocket. The writer is reliably informed that the man is alive and free to-day, although it is well Imown that he kdled his wife.

Aside from its virtue as a charm, mi'msino'wilck is said to be a powerful curative agent. It has the effect of checking the flow of blood from wounds, and is also used internally in many forms of sudden illness. It is a "life medicine," used for good purjjoses only. Four songs connected with this medicme are contained in this section (Nos. 24, 25, 26,27).

Wa'hUno'wuck ("eastern herb medicme") is entirely different in both nature and use from either hi'phiwdcJc' or mi'msino'wilck. It is said to have had originally some good offices but to have had also evil uses, and as time passed the latter prevailed. Na'waji'bigo'kwe gave the following story of its origin: There was once a young man who was very anxious to join the IMide'wiwin so that he could gain power as a hunter. His father opposed this, saying, "You are too trifling to appreciate so solemn a thing as the IVIide'." The youth was very sad because of his father's opposition. He went away and fasted many days. At last a manido' from the east came to him and told him about this medicine, saying that it had both good and bad properties. The youth at once gathered a number of men around him and they formed a kind of alliance; these men were known as Wa'hunog' } They held dances and were unscrupulous in their use of the medicine. Eight men were destroyed at the first dance, given by a man who knew the secret of this medicine. This tradition was related to Na'waji'bigo'kwe by her grandfather. The medicine "would either kill or cure those who took it"; it had power also as an evil charm and the property of being able to "make things go through the air." There were said to be many songs connected with this medicme, but none have been recorded by the writer. It was said to have passed out of use among the Mumesota Chippewa except at VermilUon Lake.

1 Compare Hoffman, The Mide'wiwin or " Grand Medicine Society " of the Ojibway.in Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn., pp. 15(5, 157.

dexsmore]

The three medicines above dsscribed, imparting power of heaUng, success, and revenge, respectively, were well adapted to the use of men on the warpatli.

Songs Connected with Odjib'we's Personal Experience ^

When Odjib'we was a hoy his paternal grandfather, two of the latter's brothers and two of his o\vn brothers, one older and one younger than himself, were killed by the Sioux. Hatred filled his heart and he determined to hunt and kill the Sioux. Thus at an early age he chose the career of a warrior.

In preparation for this vocation he frequently fasted for several days at a tune, remaining alone in the woods and hoping for a dream or vision. At length a dream came to him after a fast of four days. In this dream he saw a woman carrying several guns made of rushes. A party of Sioux approached and the woman gave a gun to each of the Sioux, telling them to shoot at him. The Sioux took the guns made of rushes and shot at him. Out of the guns came horsefhes, wliich lit on him but could not harm Imn. Then the woman told him that he would be a great warrior and would always be protected. Odjib'we said that what the woman told him came true, for he was never wounded by the Sioux. The woman also sang a song which became his '' dream song." Odjib'we stated that he ''could never really sing the song until just before his first fight with the Sioux; then the dream returned to him very clearly and the song came to his lips so that he could sing it." After that he sang it freely. He placed his faith in it and often sang it before, or in the midst of, a fight. After the recording of this song on the phonograph the aged warrior bowed his head and said tremulously that he feared he would not live long, as he had given away his most sacred possession.

No. 1. Odjib^we's Dream Soug (Catalogue No. 392)

Sung by Odjib'we Recorded without drum

r:

^ A

It

(

^

-^ • P r^T-

=9^

a

i^

O- bic-kom^^^^^^^^^m^

na-wa-wan i - m - ui-wo-wun

1 See also Nos. 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, which are included in a subsequent chapter to illustrate certain events of a typical war expeditiou.

obic^kona''wawau^ when they shot, they missed

ini^niwun^ ' the man

Analysis. — This song contains nine measures and is divided into four parts, the first, second, and last containing the rhythmic unit, and the third containing the words. This form suggests a definite phase of musical expression. No words occur in the rhythmic unit, the mind of the singer being concentrated on the musical idea. In the part of tlie song containing words the interest centers on them and the musical idea is secondary. Comparison with other songs havmg the same form will show in many instances a less d'efinite rhythm in the part containing the words (see Nos. 8, 12, 13, 30, 39, 40, 81, 105). The tonality of this song is minor, but the opening interval of the first two phrases is a major third (see analysis of No. 9, also of Nos. 34, 83, 94, 120). The melody tones are those of the second five-toned scale. Two renditions of the song were recorded; these show no variation in either rhythm or melody.

In early youth Odjib'we took part in a dog feast. It was the custom of the tribe to hold feasts of this kind occasionally m order that the young men who as])ired to become warriors might show their courage to the assembled people. An old warrior was selected to announce the feast. Walking through the village, he made the announcement in a loud voice. The next day there was a large gathering, especially of the young men. After much singing and dancing, and many speeches, the youths whose courage was to be tested were seated on the ground in a circle, in the center of wdiich a dog was killed. The liver was then removed and cut into small pieces, one of which was given each young man on a long stick. If he chewed and swallowed the morsel without flinching, he was considered brave enough for the warjiath, but if he shuddered or drew back he was deemed faint-hearted and was greeted with jeers by the assembly. Odjib'we said that he endured this test "without the slightest change of expression," but that for many days afterward he was unable to bear the thought of what he had done, although he never admitted this to any one.

When Odjib'we reached the age of 20 he felt that it was time to begin his chosen career. Accordingly he consulted his cousin Ne'bCmec'kiln ("he who walks by one side of the thing"), a young man about his own age, and they decided to go on the warpath together. They told no one of their intentions, but pretended that they were going on a hunting expedition. With heavy hearts they left the village. They thought of the friends whose deaths they were

1 In order to make this word conform to the music a meaningless syllable (wa) is inserted. The Chippewa custom of changing the words of a song to fit the music is considered in Bulletin 45, p. 14.

DENRArORF.]

to avenge, and there was probably in their minds uncertainty regarding their own fate.

Odjib'we said that they sang the following song every one of the four nights they camped. The words imply that there were more than two in the party, but, on being questioned concerning this seeming discrepancy, Odjib'we insisted that this was the song he and his cousin sang.

No. 2. Odjib'we's First War Song (Catalogue No. 371)

Sung by Odjib'we

Voice ^-z 192 Drum J^ 108 ( Drum in unaccented eighth notes*)

r"

3=1^=^=H^=^=1^

~^-wi—d—wt—d

--X

~^ — N

^'^=^B^

:8=1=

^- -ii

Be - ba - ni - o - ne-yan nin-do - na - gi-mi-gog ni - ni-w(ig e

r

i^E^E^E^EM

4:

m-z

^^^m

•-^-^-^M»

— i-^ — 1^ — 1^ — ^^=i — I- _ _ - .

V -^ -^ T^-« •- <S* ^.f^

be -ba- ni - o - ne - yan nin-do- na- gi

mi-gog ni-ni-wug e

^ -•

^^=^"=£=kg^|=gE=

^ — f—»—0

^ig^ii^sai

be - ba - ni - o - ne - yan e nin-do-na - gi-nii-gog ni - ul-wug e

• Drum-rhythm

H etc.

beba''nio^neyan on the fourth day

nindo'nagi^migog^ I am chosen by

ini'niwug ' the men

Analysis. — Four renditions of this song were recorded in August,

1909, aiKl it was sung also on two occasions by Odjib'we m March,

1910, all the renditions being identical. The intonation was good throughout the renditions. The metric unit of the song is very rapid, but steadily maintamed. The accents were clearly given and the transcription is divided into measures according to the accented

JThis word, literally translated " men," is commonly applied to warriors (see p. 187).

70 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY I bum,. 53

toiKis. Tlio rliytliniic unit varies sonidwhat in its repetitions, but begins uniformly with a 5-8 nieasun^ In the measure marked 3-4 the metric unit (/' = 192) is continued, but the rhythm is triple, necessitatmg a 3-4 instead of a 6-8 time indication. The intonation was good throughout the renditions.

Odjib'we's expedition was successful. On the fourth morning the party saw one Sioux and killed him. Taking his acalp, they returned to the village, where a great feast and dance were held in their honor. Odjib'we sang the song of that dance, but the record was not transcribed. The words, however, are of interest as showmg the arrogance of the youthful warrior after his first victory.

nisese^sinawa' I make him bite the dust

Wape^tawan .(Sioux word) ' . . . the Wapeton Sioux wabamiig' when I see him

Odjib'we stated that he did not sing his dream song on the expedition which has just been described, nor untU fii'st he was frightened by the Sioux, under the following circumstances : There was a Chippewa camp near the site of the present town of Little Falls, JMuinesota. One day two men and then- wives started from this village on a hunting expedition. WhUe the men were away from their camp the women saw two Sioux scouts, and on their husbands' return so reported to them. All started at once to return to the main camp, arriving that evening. One of the hunters told Odjib'we that the women had seen the Sioux, but Odjib'we thought little about the matter, saying the women were probably mistaken. As Odjib'we was eating his breakfast the next mornmg a man said to him, ''Let us go and see if there are really any Sioux around." Odjib'we consented to go, but had so little confidence in tlie ti-uth of the report that he put on his brightest finery, making himself a shining mark. Odjib'we and his friend left the village quietly and started on a run toward the place where the women said they had seen the Sioux, the former carrying his gun on his right arm.

Two Sioux were on the watch, and when they saw Odjib'we and his companion approaching, they hid in bushes beside the road; one carried a spear, the other a club. Without warning they attacked the two Chippewa. The main body of Sioux warriors then appeared, some

"The Dakota call themselves Otceti cakowin (Oceti sakowig), The Seven Fireplaces or Council-fires. This designation refers to their original gentes, the Mdewakantonwa" (Mdewakag-togwag), Waqpekute (Wahpe-kute), Waqpe-to'>\van (Walipetogwaq), Sisitoawai (Sisitoriwari), Ihank-to"wa"i (Ihariktoqwai)), Ihank-to"\va"na (Ihaqktoriwarjna), and Tito"wa" (Titogwai)). . . . The Waqpe-tonwa" or Wahpeton [:] The name of this people signifies Village-among-the-leaves (of deciduous trees), the gens being known to the whites as Leaf Village or Wahpeton."— James Owen Doksey, Siouan Sociology, in Fi/Uenth Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ellin., pp. 215, 21(5.

t

DEXSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 71

armed with speare and some with oKibs. Odjib'we's companion was killed, but he himself escaped, running along distance before he realized that he had a gun. Suddenly a Sioux attacked him with a club. Odjib'we shot the Sioux and then hid behind a great oak tree. Accordmg to then* custom, whenever a Sioux was killed the other Sioux suddenly disappeared. From behind the oak Odjib'we could not see a single Sioux. He did not stop to scalp the man he had killed but started for the village. On the way he met some Chippewa and thoy all went back to look for the Sioux. They could not find any living enemies, but they scalped the dead man. It was during this skii-mish that Odjib'we first sang his dream song (No. 1).

The following song (No. 3) was composed by Odjib'we after killing a Sioux and was sung by liim whan carrying the scalp in the victory dance.

A small war party was organized by Bti'gonegi'jig (Hole-in-theday), Odjib'we being one of the number. They went to a point on the Minnesota River near the site of the present city of St. Paul and took their position near the road which the Sioux would travel in gomg from their village to the white settlement. Hole-in-the-day told his men to lie in a row behind a fallen tree and gave strict orders that they should await his signal for firing, that only one man should fire, and that no one should shoot a woman. In silence the Chippewa lay behind the log, waiting for an unwary Sioux to pass that way. Soon a company of men and women came down the path, talkmg and laughing merrily. The warriors watched their leader but he gave no signal and the Sioux passed on. Later a man came alone. Hole-m-theday gave the signal to Odjib'we, who fired. The Sioux staggered and fell on his side. Odjib'we rushed forv/ard and dragged the man toward a clump of bushes, but his victim died on the way. Because he caught the wounded Sioux by the arm Odjib'we was entitled to wear thereafter a skunk-skin badge on his right arm (see pi. 6; also p. 62). Hole-in-the-day gave the order, ''Cut his throat at once." This was done, and Odjib'we himself took the man's scalp. The Chippewa then ran down to the river and, entering a canoe, started for the opposite shore. Meantime the sound of the firing had attracted the attention of the Sioux, who hastened from their village, but were unable to overtake the Chippewa. Helpless the Sioux stood on the bank and saw the Chippewa dancing on the opposite shore, waving the fresh scalp, and taunting them. Odjib'we sang the foUowmg song, which he composed at that time.

After this dance the Chippew^a returned to their home, Odjib'we saying that they "just killed that man to let the Sioux know they had been around."

BUREAU OF AMEEICAN ETHNOLOGY

No. 3. "An Eagle Feather I See" . (Catalogue No. 346) Sung by Odjib^we

Voice J r= 100 Dk0M J=: 104

( Drum in accented eighth notes*)

atf^^ilJEBEEllS^J^ill^^gl

Gi-ni-wi-gwfinni-wa - ba-ma we o -gi-tci-danin-de - bi - bi-uan

ai^igiifeii^i^iisSH

• ( Drum-rhythm )

etc.

gini^wigwun'' an eagle feather '

niwa'l>ama^ I see

ogi^tcida ^ a brave

ninde^bibina^ I have caught

Analysis. — Triple and double measures alternate throughout this song. The first and second measures constitute a rhythmic unit, the tones being those of the major triad of A. In the third and fourth measures this unit is repeated on the minor triad of F sharp. (Compare repetitions of the rhythmic unit in No. 5.) The remainder of the song consists of three phrases, each comprising a triple and a double measure; these, however, are not repetitions of the rhythmic unit. The manner in which the rhythm of the rhythmic unit influences the rhythm of other parts of the song is worthy of observa- tion. Four renditions of this song were recorded, the rhythm being accurately repeated.

The following song commemorates an incident unique in the annals of Indian warfare, relating to a scalp which was mislaid.

Odjib'we was leader of a small war party which went against the Sioux. The Chippewa were hiding in a ravine, when they saw a Sioux coming over the bluff with a gun. He did not come directly toward them, but turned toward a little lake, evidently intending to shoot ducks. He disappeared in the reeds beside the lake, and Odjib'we sent two men to reconnoiter, saying, ''Do not kill the Sioux

1 This refers to the feather worn by a warrior who toolc an enemy's scalp. (See p. 62.)

2 From Sioux aki'cita. Cf. pp. 76, 88, 108, 186, 190, 230.

dexsmore]

until after he has shot the chicks." Odjib'we and the rest of his war party remained in conceahnent. Soon they heard the report of a gun, indicating that the Sioux had shot the ducks. Tlien they heard two shots and knew that their men had fired on the Sioux. Their aim was faulty, and the Sioux soon appeared, running toward Odjib'we and his warriors, Odjib'we stepped from his hiding place. The Sioux cried, "You can not hit me. I am a brave man." Odjib'we replied, "I too am brave," and struck at the wSioux with his gun. The latter dodged and attempted to strike back with his own empty gun. Finally the Sioux started to run away, and Odjib'we shot hun in the back.

Odjib'we allowed Mo'kadjiwens' ("little hill rising up to view") to remove the scalp, and tlie war party started for home. The scalp was in charge of the man who removed it; when the party stopped for their noon lunch he either laid the scalp beside him or hung it on a bush and forgot it. The scalp was not missed until the party went into camp at night, many mUes from the halting place at noon. It was out of the question to return and find the scalp, so they composed this song, which they sang at home in the victory dance. Mo'kadjiwens' was given credit for taking the scalp, but mingled with the lionor was open ridicule for having left it "hanging in some marsh."

No. 4. Song of a Mislaid Scalp (Catalogue No. 387)

Sung by Odjib'we Recorded without drum

^^

-m

Mo - ka - d] i - wens ga

ma - mi - jfifi bwan - o - sti - gwfin gi - a -

=9

ESE^^EE

^

^— •

^t^

=P=p:

=S

I

go - de ma-na-ki

kin

Mo^kadjiwens^ Mo^kadjiwens' (man's name)

gama'mijun took

bwan^ostigwun' a Sioux scalp

gi'agode^ which is hanging

ma^nakikiii^ in a marsh

Analysis. — This is a particularly lively and attractive melody. It is one of the comparatively few Chippewa songs in which there is no change of time, the triple measure being steadily maintained. It

74 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOl.OGY [bill. 0:1

contains eight measures and is divifled into four })arts, the lirst three consisting of a rhythmic unit (see Nos. 5, 19, 33, 34). In the last part it is to be noted that the dotted eighth note occurs on the second instead of on the third count of the measure. The song is harmonic in structure and minor in tonality. Six renditions were recorded ; these show no variation in either rhythm or melody.

The next song concerns a war expedition which was organized by Ge'miwunac' ("bird flying low through the rain")/ a member of the Pillager Band of Chippewa (Odjib'we was a member of the ]VIississippi Band). The Mississippi were not thinking of going to war, but a party of 20 Pillagers came to the village and wanted them to join the party. Ten Mississippi decided to go, as did seven of the Mille Lac Band. All started from Crow Wing in canoes. A few miles down the Mississippi River they made their first camp, and had their first war dance. Odjib'we sang the song of that dance, which, he said, was sung every evening the party was away, but the warrior was feeble that day and the record is not sufficiently clear for transcription. He told of tlie scene : Some of the men danced around the fire while others sat still; all sang before they went to bed. Early the next morning they broke camp and took their journey through the woods, traveling rapidly all day. When they reached the prairie, they rested in concealment by day and traveled by night. On approaching the Sioux country, they sent two scouts ahead with instructions to return at once and report if they saw signs of the enemy. At this point in his narrative Odjib'we assumed the attitude of a scout, one hand shading his eyes and the other signaling to those supposed to be following (see plate 11 , in which his costume, as shown, is not that of the warpath).' These men started about dark and traveled rapidly while the others followed slowly. In a short time the scouts came running back. "What did you see?" asked the warriors. "A wide path," replied the scout. "It is a new trail. The Sioux must have passed to-day." One scout said, "There must have been a hundred;" the other was more conservative, estimating the number at forty.

It was decided to remain in a li 'e grove until morning and then follow the Sioux trail. In the '^ay dawn, after cleaning and loading their guns, the Chippewa set out. Soon tliey came to four lodges made of green boughs wdiere the Sioux had spent the night. Near by they saw the place where the Sioux had been dancing and where a council had been held. Forty-two stones placed in a circle indicated the number of warriors present at this council. While

1 See pi. 9 of Bulletin 45 and pp. 51, 95, 114, 115 of the same Bulletin.

2 Of. pi. 14.

ODJIB'WE IN POSTURE OF SCOUT

DEXSiMdUi;]

looking over the camj), they heard in the distance the guns of the Sioux, who were evidently killing game on the way, and the Chippewa again sent out two scouts, with orders to go along the wooded shore of a long lake near at hand and ascertain whether the Sioux were in the open country on the opposite shore. The main body of the Chippewa followed in the same general du-ection. Soon they met the scouts coming back with tlie report that two Sioux were sitting on the other shore of the lake. When the Chippewa reached the place, the Sioux had gone. The Chippewa then very stealthily ascended a hill from which they could see the entire Sioux camp. They decided not to make an attack at that time because, owing to the distance, the Sioux could see them too soon, but to wait until night. The Sioux did not suspect the presence of Chippewa in the vicinity. From their hiding place the Chippewa watched the Sioux cook a meal and later prepare for a night march. Being reluctant to let the enemy escape, the Chippewa sent three of their number to see whether a successful attack on the camp could be made, but the Sioux had gone before they reached the camp. Odjib'we was one of these three. He told his two companions to stay, saying that he would creep ahead (see pi. 14). After crawling some distance, he got behind brush where he could walk upright. Later he heard the enemy. He ke])t very still. The Sioux were evidently making another camp in the middle of the night, for he heard them chopping wood. He ran back and found ail the Chippewa at the old Sioux camp.

"Why did you not come ? " he cried. ''We could have kiUed all the Sioux." "We were waiting for you to come back and report," was the reply. Then aU the Chippewa went forward and sat near the enemy's new camp. They could hear the Sioux singing and dancing. The Chippewa did not sleep, watching and waiting for the dawn. In the first light they saw the Sioux astir. Four Chippewa went ahead to watch at a spot where the Sioux would pass, and when the latter came up, shot one man. That was the beginning of a hot fight, which lasted all day and until after nightfall; it was fought in the open with no jirotection except the high grass. No bows and arrows were used, both Chippewa and Sioux being armed with shotguns. The fighting was particularly fierce on both sides. Odjib'we said that he was obliged to "dodge and look out aU the time," and that in the confusion it was impossible to tell who killed each man. Toward evening No 'din CS\dnd"), the Mille Lac chief, was killed, and the Chippewa could not recover his body. Three Sioux scalps were secured by the Chippewa. After the fight they did not foUow the Sioux, but returned home with these trophies.

fBurj,. 5o

This victory was celebrated by great dances at wliich the following song was sung, the words indicating that the singer would soon go on the warpath again.

No. 5. Song of an Unsatisfied Warrior (Catalogue No. 391)

Sung by OdjIb'we

Mi - sfi - wa -bfin-ji

1 rbo - zi - yan e

a - sa - kfim -ig - dji

^^ig^i^^^^eiig^j

na-di-yau e

mi'suwabuiijibo^ziyan^ to-morrow I shall start in my ranoe

asa^kumig'djina'diyan^ although I have one already

Analysis. — This song comprises four parts, the first three of which contain a rhythmic unit (see Nos. 4, 19, 33, 34). It is interestmg to note that the repetitions of this unit begin on the descending tones of the minor triad. Double and triple measures alternate throughout this song, the rhythmic unit consistmg of a double followed by a triple measure. Reference to No. 3 will show an alternation in reverse order, the unit consisting of a triple followed by a double measure. Four renditions of this song were recorded, which are uniform in every respect.

The followmg five songs are connected with the last notable fight between the Sioux and the Chippewa, which occurred May 27, 1858, in the valley of the ]\Iinnesota River at the village of a Sioux chief called by the Chippewa Ca'gobens (Little Six). The Sioux name of this chief was Ca'kpe ^ (Six) and as his father bore the same name, the son was commonly laiown among both Sioux and Chippewa as Little Six. The Chippewa changed the pronunciation slightly and added the Chippewa diminutive termination ens,^ so that the name became Ca'gobens.^ The white men pronounced the name Shakopec, and a town of that name is now located where the Sioux village once stood. Little Six was a leading warrior and chief of a band among the Mdewakanton Sioux (see p. 70), and the writer has heard of his fame from Sioux living at Sisseton, South Dakota, and at DeviJs Lake, North Dakota. Both Odjib'we and his friend Niski'gwtin took

' Pronounced Sha'kpay.

2 See pp. 186,190, 230.

3 Pronounced Sha'gobfins.

I

DENSMuuK] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 77

part in the fight and together they relateil its story, Niski'gwun also singing two of the songs.

Regardmg this fight Folwell gives the following information:^

The lower Sioux, who late in 1853 reluctantly retired to their reservations on the upper Minnesota, were wont to return in summer weather in straggling companies to their old homes. . . . Shakopee and his band of 150 had early in the summer of 1858 come down and gone into camp near the town which bears his name. One of his braves, fishing in the river (the Minnesota) at an early hour, was fired upon. Shakopee's men instantly recognized the sound as coming from a Chippeway gun. They gathered at Murphy's Ferry and, presuming that the hostile shot came from one of some very small party, they let their women put 30 or 40 of them across. They did not suspect that back of the timbered bluff a mile distant there lay in hiding 150 or more Chippeway warriors. . . . They were wary, however, and placed themselves in ambush in a narrow space between two lakelets. The Chippeways . . . charged down from the bluff twice or more, without dislodging the Sioux. The day was not old when they gave up the effort and departed in haste for their homes, carrying their wounded and perhaps some dead. Four of their corpses were left to the cruel mercies of the Sioux. . . . Such was the so-called "Battle of Shakopee," May 27, 1858.

An account of the fight from the standpoint of the native historian is given by Warrsn.^ Odjib'we's narrative is given below in connection with song No. 8, which concerns the death of a warrior in the engagement.

The fij'st song of the group has reference to the war charm worn by the warrior, the song being sung shortly before a fight to make the charm more effective.^ Niski'gwfin said that he sang this song before the battle at Ca'gobens' village. The last two words were sung with the repetition of the song, the melody remammg the same. The word "balls" was said to refer to the heads of the enemy, which the warrior would cut off and toss about. Reference is made to No. 35, hi wdiich war is compared to a game, the bodies of the dead being its score. The charm usually worn by the Chippewa warrior consisted of the skm of a bird, dried and filled with a medicine known only to the wearer, probably an herb or other substance suggested to hun in a dream. (See No. 28.) This charm was hung around the neck of the warrior, who believed in its power to protect him. It was said that if, by any chance, a bullet struck this charm it would kill the man. According to Ma'djigi'jig (see p. 84), who made a duplicate of the old war charm (pi. 12), the bird used m preparing this charm w^as "the smallest of a kind of bird that flies at evening;" it was identified by AIi\ Henry Oldys, of the Biological Survey, as the kingbu'd, or bee martin ( Tyrannus tyrannus) . The characteristics of this bird may explain its use by Indian warriors in preparing a charm. "Nothmg can be more striking than the intrepidity with which one of these birds will pounce upon and harass birds vastly larger and more powerful than

1 W. W. Folwell, Minnesota, the North Star Slate, Boston, 1908, pp. 157-158.

2 History of the Ojibway, in Coll.':. Minn. Hist. Soc, vol. v, 1885, pp. 502, 503.

3 other songs connected with the use of "medicine" are Nos. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 36, 141, 142, 143.

itself. The kingbii'd is always prompt to perceive the approach of one of these enemies and always rushes out to meet it." ^ It does not fear to attack even hawks, owls, and eagles. The warrior's use of the skin of the weasel, the most ferocious of small animals, as a decoration has been ah'eady noted (p. 63).

If a birdskin were not available, a charm in the form of a bird (pi. 12) was made of cloth and the medicine placed between the two layers of the material.

No. 6. War Medicine Song

Sung by Niski^gwun

Drdm Jrr 108

I

"-s)-

n]:

liliil

ii^ ,

:4=:]=EI:4=d=4

Ga-um - ba-ci-wad e uim - bi - ne - sT - wa - yan

ga - um

r"

-•- -•- -#-

ii^i^iggisrsis^iig:

ba- ci-wad

nim-bi- ne - si-wa - yan ga-um - ba- ci-wad

I

^i-l»— f*-F(2-h»— •-fB-«»^ ^-p— •-- ^-» • •

l^-:^

li=^=

;0

nim-bi - ne -si-wa - yan ga-um - ba - ci - wad e nim- bi - ne

{First rendition)

ga^umba^ciwad^ i t is wafted upward

nim^bine'siwayan^ my bird-plumage

{Second rendition)

ga'umba^sin^ they will be flying

nim^bika^kwadon' my balls

Analysis. — Four renditions of this song were recorded. In two of these the close of the song was as transcribed ; the other renditions were interrupted several measures earlier by shrill war cries. Indifference concerning the completion of a song has been noted in a few other instances, the singer seeming satisfied without hearing the final tone. This suggests tliat the relation of the tones to a keynote is not clearly felt. A strong rhythmic sense is shown by the accuracy with which the rhythmic unit is repeated. The melody tones are those of the fourth five-toned scale.

Niski'gwun stated that before the battle he sang his dream song. This song came to him when he. was a young man, after he had

1 S. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway, North American Birds, Boston, 1874, p. 318.

I

dbnsmore]

endured a vigil of 10 days, during which time he took only enough

food to sustain life. The words are obscure, a feature characteristic

of dream songs, the purpose being to conceal the exact nature of the

dream.

No. 7. NiskFgwun's Dream Song (Catalogue No. 386)

Sung by Niski^gwun

" ,^~«

^^^m

Gi - jig

ni-wi- dji-wi-go

SiS^t^^^

ipzzp:

t=U=i

M

si

^

'-^

y:

I

gi^jig the heavens

ni Vidji^wigo' go with me

Analysis. — This song was recorded three times; the transcription was made from the first rendition. In general character the song presents a contrast to the songs recorded by Odjib'we. The rhythm is less clearly marked. In it we find neither rhythmic unit nor repeated phrase; the succession of triple and double measures is irregular, and although the rhythm of the song as a whole has a certain individuality it can scarcely be said to be complete and satisfactory. The melody is based on a major triad and would be classified as harmonic except for the E flat in the first measure. This tone was sung firmly and accurately. The sixth lowered a semitone is the accidental occurring most frequently in Chippewa songs (see Table 7). This accidental is found in the following songs of the present volume: Nos. 7, 8, 19, 22, 41, 101, 156, 160.

The story of the fight at Ca'gobens' camj), as related by Odjib'we, is here given.

A war party of more than a hundred Chippewa determined to attack the encampment of Ca'gobens, on the southern shore of the Minnesota River. The Chippewa approached the river from the north and remained behind a bluff, from the summit of which they could see the Sioux tipis on the opposite shore. At daybreak a band of about 25 Chippewa warriors descended the bluff and hid in the bushes beside the water; among the number were Odjib'we and

Ga'witayac/ ("whirling wind"), a very brave and handsome young man from Ked Lake. Soon they saw a Sioux coming down to the shore. A woman sat on the high bank and watched him. With no suspicion of danger the Sioux entered a canoe and started to cross the river. As he neared the shore the Chippewa shot at him. In an instant the screams of the woman gave the alarm and the Sioux rushed with guns in their hands to the river and crossed in canoes. Before Odjib'we and his party could return to the Chij^pewa camp the fight began beside the river. Odjib'we and Ga'witayac', who had used all their ammunition, were trying to catch a Sioux, their intention being to kill him with a war club. The man made his escape, and one of the Sioux in the river shot Ga'witayac', who fell mortally wounded. Odjib'we signaled to those who cared for the wounded and they carried Ga'witayac' back to the camp.

The Sioux then forced the Chippewa out of the bushes and under cover of their shelter they fired on them in the open. The Chippewa returned to their camp and prepared for the homeward journey. The wounded were laid upon litters of poles, each carried on the shoulders of four men. On such a litter Ga'witayac' was borne, his friends standing around him as he sang his death song. Slowly his voice faded away and in a few hours he dietl while he was still singing. The large bear was his ''manido' animal," in whose guidance he had trusted.

No. 8. Death Song of Ga'witayac' (Catalogue No. 338)

Sung by Odjib^we

r

i4

1 1 3 1 1 3

==FP=^q

-5- H 1 F — I F- -

• ^ — ^b^l — P — h-P

Ki-tcl-mak-wa ni-

I -»- -•- _ -^ -•-.

wa - ji-mig e

~1 1 \ r —

-Rt— ^ ^ g— FF^-^ m r ^— a-pi ^— F« 3 •-

B

densmore]

CHIPPEWA MUSIC ^U

ki^tcimak'wa large bear

ni^waye'jimig' ^ deceives me

Analysis. — The rhythmic unit of this song occurs eight times; it is somewhat modified in the last two measures, giving strength to the close of the song. The first two measures constitute an introduction, after which the rhythmic unit is continuously repeated except in the middle part, which contains the words. (See Nos. 1, 12, 13, 30, 39,40,81, 105.)

The song is major in tonality and contains the flatted sixth as an accidental. The chords of the tonic and submediant form the framework of this melody, but the accented A flat prevents the classifica- tion of the song as purely melodic in structure. It is classified therefore as "melodic with harmonic framework."

Two songs were composed concerning this fight and were sung in the dances which followed the return of the warriors. One of these songs recalls the fight beside the river and is said to have been composed during the fight. The struggle continued until past noon. Five Chippewa were killed and 10 wounded, and many Sioux were killed.

No. 9. "On the Bank of a Stream'

Sung by Odjib^we

^ 4t-

9i.l2f

-^

±:

3:

4:

1^=^

A - ea - mi - zi

bi - wi - cen

en -da-na - dji-mi-go

yan

^12_U_I V_. :d^_U..^: ^ 1 ^^-^ 1—

gss

:e^

?--

a=U:

£=t

_^__D2

i

aga^mizi'biwicen^ across the river

en'dana'djimigoyan' they speak of me as being

Analysis. — The ascending interval of an octave at the opening of this song was given accurately in the four renditions. This initial interval occurs in only five other songs of the series of 340 Chippewa songs (see Nos. 170, 174 in Bulletin 45 and Nos. 31, 53, 125 in the

' One syllable of this word was omitted by the singer.

BUKEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

[Bi'i.i,. 53

present volume). The two songs in Bulletin 45 and No. 125 in the present volume are songs of the moccasin game, No. 31 is a war song, and No. 53 the song before a boys' fight. The character of these songs suggests a correspondence between the mental state of the singer and the initial intervals of the songs. The tonality of the present song is minor, but the tonic does not appear until the nmth measure, the opening being based on the major third, which constitutes the upper part of the tonic triad. This opening is noted in five other songs of the present series (Nos. 1, 34, 83, 94, 120). Four of these are songs of war or of dances connected with war and one concerns thunderbirds. In a less marked degree it occurs in the following songs in Bulletm 45: Mide' songs Nos. 51, 54, 59, 69, 79, and war song No. 130.

At the close of this song we fuid the progression 8-7-8, which represents the descent of a whole tone to the seventh of a mmor key and return to the tonic. This progression at the close of a song occurs in 9 other songs of various classes of the series of 340 (see Nos. 19, 126, 150 in Bulletm 45 and Nos. 50, 85, 100, 119, 124 of the present volume). This close of a song is frequently found in the ancient music of the white race, especially m old English Plam Song.

This melody contams no rhythmic miit, but the phrase in the 8th measure reappears in the 14th and in part of the 15th measure with a change of accent, a variation which gives character to tlie rhythm of the song as a whole. The metric unit was mamtained with less regularity m this than in the majority of the songs.

The second song concernmg this fierce fight calls to mind the grief of the Sioux. Odjib'we said he remembered the Sioux women following them across the river, crying, and cursing the Chippewa.

No. 10. "At Ca'gobgns' Village"

Sung by Odjib^we

m

iSEt

^

4:

=F

111^

.t=t

i^i

:4=Ez

a^t=^r==^

fc=t:

-:=^

-• r-0 • • •

Ca - go - bens o - do - de - nail ma - wi - wfig e i - ni - nl - w(ig

•-^

Ei^^a^t^js

3t=II#

S=

^H

(Copyriglu by Sweet .Stndit>, Miniieiii)olis, Miiiii. MEJA'KIGI'JIG

DENSMOKE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 83

( First rendition)

Ca''gobens at Ca^gobens

odoMenan' village

ma'wiwug'' (they) are weeping

ini^niwug^ the men

{Second rendition)

Ca''gobens at Ca^gobens

odoMenail^ village

ma^wiwug^ (they) are wailing

ikwe/wiig the women

Analysis. — This melody is characterized by opening measures minor in tonahty and by the tonic appearing in the first measure. (See analysis of No. 9.) The first five measures have a rhythm which is complete in itself and is not repeated; the last six measures also have a rhythm of their own and may be said to constitute an answering phrase. Between these sections is the part of the song containing the words. This is not strongly accented, though the notevalues are the same in all the renditions. The transcri])tion contams the first half of the words, the remainder being given with a second rendition of the song.

Eight months after this song was recorded on the phonograph it was sung again by the same singer and the renditions were found to be identical, even the slight deviations from exact time bemg repeated.

Personal Reminiscences of Three Warriors

THE child's dream OF WAR

(By Meja^kigi^jig)

Meja'kigi'jig ' (pi. 13), chief of the White Earth Chippewa, furnished, in June, 1911, the following narrative of his chUdish dreams and their fulfillment. He stated at that time that he was the sole survivor of the representatives of the tribe who selected White Earth for the abode of the Chippewa under the terms of the treaty of 1867. He stated also that he was in several war parties led by Odjib'we, that he took part in ten campaigns against the Sioux, and was in four fights. The aged chief is honored and respected by all who know him, a man of wise counsels and kindly heart.

Speaking through his favorite interpreter, Mr. John W. Carl (see pp. 130, 303),Meja'kigi'jig said that when he was a little boy his father was killed by the Sioux. He well remembered trying every night to dream of something which should enable him, a boy of 7 years, to

1 Rev. J. A. Gilflllan is authority for the statement that when he went to the reservation as a young man the name of the chief was explained to him by the old Indians as meaning "the sky over all the earth, coming down to the earth at the horizon."

kill a Sioux. Tlie older people told him to "go to sleep and be good," but his young mind was filled with thoughts of war. He refused food, not going away from home to fast, after the custom of older boys, but remaining in the lodge. At length he dreamed that he shot a Sioux. Again he dreamed that his hair was gray and, pointing to his flowing locks, slightly streaked with gray, the old chief said that his dream had come true, for he was attaining the allotted age of man.

Later, without leaving home, the boy fasted five days and five nights, hoping for further dreams, but none came.

In the following spring he went away from home to fast. A few years had passed since the little boy could not ''go to sleep and be good," but the purpose of his life had not changed; it had deepened and grown more serious. The birds were just beginning to come when he took his way to the ''wilderness." Selecting a large tree, he built in it a "nest" for himself, in which he remained without food day after day. At last, on the fifth night of his fast, he dreamed that he held three scalps in his hand. Then he was sure of himself and of his career. With confidence he joined the warriors, and his faith in his dream remained unshaken and at last the day came when he held aloft three Sioux scalps.

Thus the boy, grown to manhood, avenged his father's death according to the custom of his people.

THE TRAINING OF YOUNG WARRIORS

(By MA^njiGi^jio)

Ma'djigi'jig ("great sky") was a young man when the war parties swept across the prairie. Ilis personal reminiscences were not those of a leader, but he recalled with distinctness the trials which fell to the lot of a recruit. Later he served many times as a scout, and, as a warrior, secured three Sioux scalps. In plate 14 he is represented in the attitude of a scout on the prairie, holding a wisp of grass or bit of brush before his face, and also as telling the story of the three scalps.

According to Ma'djigi'jig, "the old warriors treated the beginners as though they were nothing but animals." The young warriors camped a few rods in the rear of the rest of the war party, and united with the main camp only when near the enemy. The recruits slept in little shelters, or booths, which they made of boughs, two men in each. The older warriors had plenty of food and even were allowed to eat fat meat, while the recruits were given scanty rations of wild rice, either parched or only partially cooked, and seasoned slightly with maple sugar. Sometimes they were given dried fish or tough smoked meat and occasionally lean fresh meat hai'dly seared before the fire.

3ULLETIN 53 PLATE 14

IN FObTURE OF LOOKING FOR THE ENEMY

RECOUNTING THE TAKING OF THREE SCALPS

MA'DJIGI'JiG

nKXRMORF.] CTTTPPEWA MUSIC II - 85

When deer or other large game were killed by the warriors it was customary to hold a "breaking-bone contest" in the camp of the recruits. This was conducted as follows: A marrow bone (usually the leg bone) was laid on the ground. The man who intended to test his skill took his place beside the bone and then walked eight paces away from it. He was then blindfolded and, hatchet in hand, walked toward the bone. When he thought himself near it, he struck at it with his hatchet. Ma'djigi'jig illustrated this for the writer, but age had shortened his steps and, blindfolded, he did not measure the distance correctly. In the old days the man who cracked the bone with the first blow of his hatchet hastened to carry away the spoils; after being cooked the marrow was removed by means of a stick made for the purpose. This was the only way in which a young warrior on his first expedition could secure a taste of fat. He was not given the prize unless he succeeded m actually breaking the bone, and much merriment resulted from the misdirected efforts of many of the young men.

On their first war party men were required to put mittens on both hands when they left the village and to wear them until they entered a fight with the Sioux. These mittens were tied securely at the wrist, from which a small stick was hung; this the recruit was ordered to use in scratching his head or body. Failing to do this, on reaching home he would ''break out with boils on his whole body." Some recruits refused to wear mittens or to use the "scratch stick," and Ma'djigi'jig recalled one instance in which a man became covered with sores to so great an extent that he could scarcely reach home. Tlie old man gave as a reason for the regulation that the recruits lacked the protective medicines carried by the warriors.

Many rules were strictly enforced in the recruits' camp. Care was taken to avoid stepping over any article belonging to another. Thus if a man stepped across another's gun he was chased and severely punished by the owner of the weapon, as such action was supposed to render it useless. It was considered a bad omen for a recruit to see a snake.

Ma'djigi'jig related the story of an attack on a Sioux village, which took place during his first war expedition. At dusk the leader of the party sent several experienced men to reconnoiter. Under cover of night they approached the Sioux village, counted the tipis, and estimated the number of warriors. Soon after midnight they returned and made their report. Preparations for a march were begun at once and just before daybreak the Chippewa drew near the Sioux village. The leader then called for the wind and the \vind came. The Sioux heard the wind singmg through the tipi poles, and the flapping of the tipi canvas, but they did not hear the soft tread of the Chippewa as the latter entered the camp. The Chippewa lowered

their guns, aiming at the places where the Sioux lay asleep. When all was ready one of the warriors blew a quavering note on a tiny whistle, like the call of a waking bir<l. At this signal the Chippewa fired and then rushed at tlie tipis, tearing them down and killing as many of the wounded as possible. With a quick slash they severed the head of a Sioux from his body and ran away with it, removing the scalp afterward. Three or four scalps were sometimes cut from one head. The term "scalp lock," however, was applied to the lock situated just back of the crown. As this is the only spot at which the scalp adheres closely to the skull, the scalp lock is especially difficult to remove, but a skillful warrior could do so with one motion of his knife. He then slipped the end of the hair beneath the string which held his breechcloth, and the scalp dangled at the victor's side. If a war party ran short of ])rovisions the leader selected a place to camp, near a lake. He smoked his pipe, sang his dream song, and smoked again. At length he pointed in a certain direction and said, ''A deer is coming there; it is sent to you." Thus the camp was supplied with meat. Ma'djigi'jig said he had known this to occur many times. He stated also that, before attacking a Sioux vjllage, the leader of a war party frequently "called on the thunderbird to send rain," in order that the Sioux would remain at home, not changing their camp or wandering in the vicinity, where they might detect the approach of the Chippewa.

THE WAR BADGE

(By A^KiWEN^zi)

A'kiwen'zi ("old man") wore proudly the double insignia of his success as a warrior — feathers in his headdress and skunk skins attached to his ankles (pi. 15). Even at his advanced age he was so lithe and agUe in the dance that one could readily believe his statement that as a warrior he was distinguished for fleetness of foot. Two of his war-]ionor feathers w^ere won at the memorable fight at Ca'gobens' vUlage (see p. 79). After that fight there were many dead and wounded Sioux lying on the ground. He kicked one of the latter and thus won the right to wear a skunk skin at his ankle. Later, as a member of a war party which pushed far into the Sioux country, he killed a Sioux near the site of the present Sisseton, South Dakota, afterward kicking the body of the slain; thus he won the right to wear his third war-honor feather, and the other skunk skin at his ankle. In June, 1911, A'kiwen'zi was living on the Wliite Earth Reservation. There he and his war comrades frequently joined in social dances with their old enemies, and again smoked the pipe of peace with the Sioux.

A'KIWEN'21

DESCRIPTION OF CHIPPEWA WAR EXPEDITION, WITH TYPICAL SONGS

Every phase of &. war expedition had its appropriate song, from the announcement of the leader's plan to the close of the victory dances.

Songs Connected with Organization of War Party

The warrior who wished to lead a war party sent an oc'icahe'wis (messenger) with tobacco to ask the warriors to join his expedition. The messenger went to each village and requested the warriors to assemble; he then explamed the purpose of the expedition, filled a pipe with a/pak' osigHn' (a mixture of tobacco and the inner bark of the red willow), and, holding the bowl of the pipe, offered the stem to one warrior after another. As he did this he sang the song which follows. AU who were willing to join the expedition so signified by smoking the pipe.

No. 11. Song of the War Messenger (Catalogue No. 358)

Sung by Odjib^we Drum Jr=92 ( See drum-rhythm below )

Bi - da

ko - na - ma - wl

no - sis nin- do - pwa-gtin

bi - da - ko - na - ma -wi

no - SIS nin-do - pwa-gtin

EpEEpi^EEB

e^^m:

bi - da - ko - na - ma- wi - cin

1^^^^^

no - SIS nin - do - pwa -gtin

:^irfi:a=p:zv=p=i»±f=?^

-^-^

3;

atzi

^=1 p-=^qri:^z=:p— L-i

e bi - da- ko-na-ma-wi - cin Drum-rlaythm

-3

no- SIS nin-do -pwa-gfin

etc

BUP.RATT OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

[bt;t,i.,

bTdako'namawicm' come and hold

nin'dopwa^gun my pipe

no'sis my grandchild

Analysis. — The drum-rhythm of this song is unusual; it consists of an accented stroke followed by a short unaccented stroke corresponding to the second count of a triplet. The metric unit of the (bum is slightly slower than that of the voice. Four renditions of the song were secured, throughout which the rhythmic unit was mauitained with great regularity, though the intonation varied perceptibly.

The tones of the melody comprise only the minor third and fourth, the principal interval being the descenduig minor third. The song contams a rhythmic unit, which occurs four times, constituting the entire melody.

After the smoking of the pipe the oc'kabe'wis returned to the man who wished to organize the expedition and reported his success in the following song.

No. 12. Return of the War Messenger (Catalogue No. 359)

Sung by Odjib^we Voice j=z 192

O - gi - tci

dan

i - ji - na - gft - zi - w<ig

^^^iE^E^Iil

^liE^isifi^;

ba^-f:

Sr^

^ik

ni - ui-wiig e

be - zi- gwi

iJi^M--^

H

ogi^tcidan like warriors

ijina'guziwug' they look

be^zigwi'djig who arise

ini'niwug^ those men

Analysis. — This song is divided into four parts, the first, second, and last of wliich contain the rhythmic unit, while the words occur in the third part, which has a different rhythm. (See Nos. 1, 8, 13, 30, 39, 40, 81, 105.) The drum-rhythm is the same as in the pro-

PEN'S more!

ceding song. The descending interval of the minor third occurs frequently, and the song is distinctly minor in tonahty.

In a short time the warriors arrived and camped near the lodge of the leader. A feast was given by the leader, at which he explained more fully the proposed expedition, askmg lor a final pledge from the warriors. All who were satisfied with the plan responded with He lie he, and the expedition was consitlered formally inauguratcul. The leader then said, "We will have the first dance to-night, and we will dance every night until we reach the enemy." According to Odjib'we the followmg song was usually sung by the Mississippi Band of Chippewa at this initial dance (see also No. SI).

No. 13. "I Feel no Fear" (Catalogue No. 328)

SunK by Odjib'we

Voice J_ 160

r

gwe - ni - mu - si ka- win nin- ca - gwe - iii - mu - si ki- tci -

f: fi* it f: It f: -f: * It f- f:* -f- -^ r-^-'-fel?-

.bb^-.

E^i-fc|=L^=t=

EldS

zi - bi - wi - 111 - 111 ni - bo - in wa - ya - win - di - gin e ka -

1^

bl2^.u^_.__l2l?^_Jj.j2&*->^

t^

t=£^-^-^

^

J2l2^^*-.-

=^^^

win nin-ca - gwe - ni- mu - si ka - win nin - ca - gwe- iii-mu - si ka -

*^=F^-f=?

'-Hi lt^ — ^-^-^ — r

-Ji-fi—ffifEEE^p^Ef

1=:1==

•— itut

-i-

-^~

a

win nin-ca - gwe - ni-mu - si ka-win nin-ca - gwe - ni-mu - si

^'^^^^"' -.; I Ifeelnofear

nincagwe'nimusi |

Kitcizi^iwini'ni when the Great River man '

nibo^in death

waya'windiiii^ speaks of

1 The "Great River" was the Mississippi, and the term "Great River man" referred to a member of the Mississippi Band of Chippewa, s Tlie last syllable is divided and also changed, to fit the music.

Analysis. — This is the first song recorded by Odjib'we. Four renditions were secured and found to be uniform. The first two were without the drum; these were followed by a pause, during which it was explained to the singer that the drum was desired; he then resumed his singing with the accompaniment of that instrument. On comparison it is found that the pitch and metric unit of the two parts of the record are identical. This ability to resume his song in the same tempo is the more interesting when we note the discrepancy between the metric units of voice and drum.

The rhythmic unit occurs six times and is interrupted only by the change of words. (See Nos. 1, 8, 12, 30, 39, 40, 81, 105.) In this part of the song there is no decided accent and the enunciation of the words resembles rapid speech. The excitement of the song centers in these words, given on a high tone, descending in the next phrase to the flatted sixth, the accidental most frequently found in Chippewa songs. The flatted seventh also occurs, which strengthens the phrase. The song is grim in its suggestion, yet it is major in tonality and cheerful in its rhythm.

The following song was sung at the dances preceding a war expedition. It contains the name of a man who once stayed at home, and was intended to shame all who, without proper excuse, failed to join the warriors.

No. 14. "The Man who Stayed at Home" (Catalogue No. 388) Sung by Odjib'we

Voice Jr^ 152

Recorded without drum

gig^jSg^Egg^agigig^ppp

Mi-nodj Jin-gwa-be mi no i - ni

-•^^

uiii gi-ne - iii-mud e

m^m^

4±^iti

efeag^jsjfr^dE^-

—1-

wfi-U go - cH o-don-da - me-ni-man

mi'nodj although

Jiiigwa'be Jingwa'loe (man's name; meaning, "man

of the spruce tree")

ini'nifi ' a man

ine^nimud' considers himself

wi^wun his wife

gocix' certainly

odon^dame^niman^ takes all his attention

1 The initial g of the fourth word in the music is carried over from the ii, the final letter of the preceding word— an example of elision by Chippewa singers.

CHIPPEWA WAR BANNER

DENSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 91

Analysis. — Four renditions of this song were recorded with a short interval between the second and thii'd. The rhythm was accurately repeated, even the slight variations in time being duplicated. It is a taunting, mocking melody, different from any other war song and admirably expressing the idea contained in the words. Compare No. 38, which is also a song of derision.

The leader appointed four men to act as his aids during the entire expedition. These men, like the messenger sent with the tobacco, were called oc'kabe'wis. Tliey attended to all the preparations for the expedition and made the arrangements for the dances held before leaving the village. One of them carried the leader's pipe and the other carried the drum when the war party was on the march. They also arranged for the camps on the expedition. A war party always carried a generous supply of ''medicine," also materials necessary for making and mending moccasins. Part of the equiprhent was provided by the leader, who also borrowed the "banner" or "flag" borne b}^ the war party. This was made of eagle feathers sewed on a strip of cloth about 4 feet long, which was fastened lengthwise to a pole. Odjib'we stated that in the old days he knew of only one such banner among the Mississippi Band of Chippewa, made by a man named Gaga'gifwigwun' ("raven feather") and loaned to the war parties. It was considered the common property of the warriors, but this man was its custodian in time of peace, and it was preserved in his family after hostilities ceased. At the present time (1912) there is one war flag preserved at White Earth, but this is believed not to be the one made by Gaga'giwigwtin'. It was carried in the wars against the Sioux by Mi'gisins' (Little Eagle), and is now in the possession of his daughter. In plate 16 this banner is shown, held by the daughter of Mi'gMns', though a woman would not have carried such a banner hi actual warfare. Mi'gMns' was so distinguished a warrior that a song in his honor is still sung at White Earth (No. 126, Bulletin 45). A similar banner, used at Waba'cihg, is shown in plates 44 and 45.

The final event before the departure of the war party from the village was the dog feast. The head alone was eaten and only the men who were going with the expedition partook of it. Participation in this feast was considered equivalent to a pledge that the warriors were prepared to meet the full fortune of war, whether death or worse, at the hands of the enemy.

BUREAU or AMERICAN ETHJSTOLOGY [bdll. r.?.

(Catalogue No. 3fi0)

No. 15. Pledf^e Song Sung by Odjib^we

Brum Jrz 108

( See drum-rhythm below )

r

JE ya nin-da- ca- mi-gog e ya nin- da- ca- mie ya

r

ii^

n

See

^— ^ — ^— ^^ — ^ — ^-

nin - da - ca - mi

ya

nin - da - ca - mi

r"

^- -^- -^ -•- -^ -•- ^ ^

-^^ A 4- ^ L

I^

o - gi - tci - dag

nin - da - ca - ml - gog

, I

ya

§aESL=^B:

:4

3:

H—W^zw^^f^ife:-

^=t:=t::

nin- da - ca- mi -gog Drum-rhythm

2/a

nin-da -ca-ml-gog

^a

::1=l=q=^

etc.

I

ninMacamigog^ they feed me

ogi^tcidag' the braves

nin^dacamigog^ feed me

Analysis. — The second and third measures of this song constitute the rhythmic unit. Five renditions of the song were recorded. The opening measure was uniformly given, but in two instances the last measure was omitted, tlie corresponding quarter notes an octave higher taking its place.

The written music appears to consist of seven two-measure phrases with an introductory measure, but the Indian's rendition divides the song into two parts, the first containing eight and tlie second seven measures, a strong accent bemg given the first note of the ninth measure.

At the conclusion of the dog feast all the warriors danced, guns in hand, and sang the following song, whicli contains no worsts. All the final preparations had been made and they were ready to start on their journey.

DENSMOUE]

Voice

No. 16. Dance of the Dog Feast

Sung by Odjib^we

i92

Drum

r".

p§igfjgs£^amg

^J

S~-a:

^zB

#-^-

§

^g^sE^g^^i^^^B^g^H

Analysis. — This song contains a rhythmic unit which is slightly varied m repetition. No variation in either melody or rhythm appears in the four renditions of the song except that in the second of each group of two renditions the shiger avoided the first high note and began with the last note of the second measure. The tempo is slow and the drum and voice are in consonance. In general character the song is dignified, yet vigorous, as befitted the song of those who were equipped and ready for the warpath.

At the conclusion of the dog feast and dance the leader of the party began the "song of departure" and his warriors took up the melody. Dancmg, not marchmg, they left the scene of the feast, and followed their leader toward the land of the enemy. Only one woman, usually the wife of the leader, was allowed to go with the war party. Four women escorted the warriors as they left the village, walking back and forth in front of them and joinmg in their song. These women had their faces whitenetl with clay. At last they divided, two standmg on each side of tlie path, and the warriors passed between them. There were no farewells and the song did not cease. With eyes turned toward tlie enemy's country the warriors went forth to meet their uncertain fate.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Ibull. 53

No. 17. Song of Departure ' (Catalogue No. 362)

Sung by Odjib^we

Voice

(1st) (1st)

\r

:^fi_^(t^-

-V I ^ • ^—P—fi—^—ft-

11^

(2d)

r

^^^— ^— ^

(2d)

I

t_^t=L^=t^Eg:

:p=p:

.^^

=t^:

=E=

H=::a=:i-

Bi-ma-ci-wGg ni-mi-gwiin-fig c bi - ma-ci-wCig ni-mi-gwUn-fig c Ae

I

bima'ciwug'' they are sailing on the breeze

nimi'gwunug' my feathers

Analysis. — The words of this song probably refer to the birdskin charm worn by the warrior (see pp. 77, 78) . The song contains two rhythmic units, similar in the division of the last three counts but differing in the division of the first two. Each unit occurs twice, its repetition being followed by a triple measure. Thus the first unit followed by a triple measure constitutes the first part of the song, and the second unit, steadier and stronger in rhythm and followed by a triple measure, constitutes the second part. The melody is harmonic in structure and is based on the tonic chord.

Songs of the Warpath

At evening the oc'kabe'wis selected a suitable place for the camp. According to Odjib'we, every evening the warriors seated themselves in a row facing the enemy's country; the four oc'kabe'wis sat in front of them, and in advance of all sat the leader with his drum. The leader sang alone, and the warriors did not respond with the shrill cries which punctuated many of the war songs. He placed two crotched sticks upright in the ground, with a crossbar betw^een them, on which rested the stem of his lighted pipe, with the bowl on the ground. As he sang the leader shook his rattle of deer hoofs or laid it beside the pipe and looked away toward the enemy's country, while his silent warriors waited on his divination.^

1 See No. 350, Bulletin 45.

2 Of. George Earl Church, Aborigines of South America, London, 1912, p. 2s4: [Among the Pampas Indians the wizards] " used the maraca [rattle], which they said told them many secrets aud made all they said oracular."

DENSMORKl

The following song was said to have l)een sung by the leader every night while on an exj^edition.

No. 18, Song of the Leader

Sung by Odjib^we

Voice J_ 104 Dkum J= 104

1 r

-0- -0. .0- -4- -0- -0-' .0, ,0.

A-ni de -ba - bfin-da-man a - ki

we a-ni de

• •-

ba - bQn-daa - ki we

dEEE4

ga - ki en

i - go - kwag ga - ki

a-ni de

ba - bfin - da -man a - ki

a - ni de

ba - bfi.n-da-man a - ki we

a - ni de -ba - b(in-da-mau a - ki we

ani^ as

deba'bundaman' I see

aki' •. the earth

gaki'na

en^igokwag^

the whole compass of it

Analysis. — The transcription of this song is from the first of four renditions, which differ only in the intonation of the tones marked. These tones are given with what might be termed a 'Hoss" of the voice. Thus the third tone of the song is sung in one instance almost as high as G flat. There is an evident intention to lower slightly the next to the last tone of the rhythmic unit, but the interval is not definite. The close of the last phrase is given with more accuracy than the preceding, although the low pitch of the tone makes it more difficult to sing.

The rhythmic unit occurs six times, its repetitions comprising the entire song. An additional quarter note is inserted after the second and fifth rej^etitions ; this is found in all the renditions and adds

interest to the rhythm of the song as a whole. The metric unit of voice and drum is the same, the voice slightly ])receding the drum.

The following song was sometimes sung by a leader and was also used by oc'kabe'wis and by scouts (see No. 82). This is a dream song and was always sung by men who were alone, never at the dances.

No. 19. "I will go to the South"

Sung by Odjib^we

Voice

Drum ,'=112

( See drum-rhythm below )

3=piip-^^i^^

ca - wtinnin-sra - di

ja ca - wtin - ong nin-ga - di •

r:

-^K^

=^:

m^ms^^^^^

H»=

^-»-»

3EF^Et^f^3

ja ca - wfin-oug a

-bi - don ca-wfln - i - no - din

!!^=i=g

— ^•-•— •qt?^

-•-=—•

»->— >-^-^'

t--=t=^f:==f±i^=t=F=^:

•— ^— •-

■0 — <&-

c nin-ga-di - ja ca-wun-ong nin-ga - di ca - wtin-ong e

Drum-rhythm

i:tvz^iz::^5=:^z^=:j^=z::^r:^=::t!iz::^Z4=:^ etc.

nin^gadija^ I will go

ca^wunong^ .----.-.- to the south

nin^gabidon^ I will bring

ra'wuninoMin the south wind

Analysis. — This song was recorded twice, an interval of two weeks elapsing between the making of the two records. On the first occasion the singer sang the song twice, and, after pausing to explain the w^ords, again sang it twice. On the second occasion also he sang the song twice. Thus six renditions were secured, in groups of two. On

DEXS.MOIiE]

comparison it is found that these renditions vary in intonation, but that the note-values and accents are the same, with some slight exceptions in the tones which connect the phrases. In all the songs it geems allowable to divide or prolong these connecting tones at the will of the singer. The song contains a rhythmic unit, which occurs sLx times and is slightly varied near the close of the song. Each group of two rhythmic units forms a melodic phrase. The song is melodic in structure according to the present basis of classification because an accent is placed on an accidental tone, but the remainder of the accented tones follow the intervals of the tonic chord. The accidental is the sixth lowered a semitone. In form the melody resembles Nos. 4, 5, 33, 34.

Many songs were used in the dances at tlie nightly camps, the warriors frequently singing of their former victories. The following two songs are characteristic of this class.

No. 20. "A War Bird'

Sung by Odjib^wb

Ja- wGu-i - bi-si

9ti=t^

#-^^-»-

rr

Si^^ii^^

ga - ka-na-wa-ba-mid

=9*

^

ja'wimibi'si a war bird

ga'kanawa^amid' who looked upon me

Analysis. — In the number and manner of renditions this song is similar to No. 19, two sets of records being made at an interval of a fortnight. As in the preceding instance, the rhythm remains identical throughout the renditions, but several unimportant note-values are altered. The rhythmic unit is short and occurs in both double and triple measures ; the song as a whole has an interesting completeness or unity of rhythm. The melody is clearly in the key of G, although the tonic does not appear until the eighth measure.

BUEEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

By midday the warriors were on their journey. Odjib'we said that before starting the leader frequently filled and lighted a i)ipe, after which he took a puff and held the stem toward the enemy's country, saying, "Every Sioux who puffs this pipe will soon be a dead man." He then passed the pi])e to all the warriors, each of whom took a puff. The leader then spoke to the drum in a low muttering tone, "Be faithful, my drum," or "Be faithful, be true."

When this ceremony was finished the drum gave the signal and the warriors took up their journey, with the pipe-bearer leading the way, and the leader walking last, carrying his rattle of deer hoofs. After the party was well underway the drum ceased beating and the war party walked in silence except for the occasional sound of the leader's rattle. A Chip])ewa war party frequently traveled 25 miles in a day, stopping at intervals to rest and smoke. According to Odjib'we they made a camp and "had a good rest," if possible, before attacking the Sioux, several scouts kee])ing close watch on every movement of the latter. *

As the warriors neared the enemy they began preparations for actual warfare, chief among which was the singing of their medicine songs. It was a custom among the Chippewa warriors to dip the heads of the war arrows in red medicine, the following song being suns while this was being done.

No. 21. Arrow Song

Sung by Odjib^we

Voice J ^ 60 Dkum J — 84

O - na - mfm-un i de - bwan o - na - mQn-tiu

de-bwau wa hi

:i^l

yu

S3

:4zi=:

' — I

hu ya

wa hi yu wa hi yu hu o - na-mfium^^^

3 ' 3

(in i de - bwan o-na-mHu - du i de-bwau yu wa hi yu hu ya

o'namiinun^ scarlet

de^bwan is its head

I

de.xsaiore]

Analysis.— The rhythmic unit of this song is short and vigorous. The melody is inspiring in character and well fitted to increase a warrior's confidence in his success. The ending is peculiar but was given uniformly, the five renditions of the song being identical in every respect.

The i)rincipal war medicine carried by the Chippewa was the bi'jikiwuck' (''cattle herb medicine"), which was said to ''make men strong," and to be a powerful healing medicine (see p. 63). It was the warrior's custom to chew this medicine and spray it from his lips upon his body and his equipment. The following song was sung while preparing the medicine.

No. 22. Origin of the Bi'jikiwflck' (Catalogue No. 372)

Suug by Odjib'we

-f- -fL ^ iff .#. ^ ~i i i p^

Mo - ki - yan nin -de mo - ki - yan

mo - ki

yan nin -de mo - ki - yan

mo - ki - yan

mo - ki

mo- ki-yau niu-de mo - ki-yan

"^o'kiyan' I arising

°iiide^ I inyspif

mokidji Vanun^ from the flowing spring

_ Analysis.—This is the first of a large number of songs based on the interval of a fourth or in which that interval is especially prominent. This group includes 11 songs in Bulletin 45 and 25 songs in the present volume, a total of 36, or 11 per cent of the entire collection. The mterval of the fourth is usually (in its first occurrence) a descending interval and, except at the close of a song, is rarely if ever followed by the interval of a third, completing the cliord of the sixth. It occurs in three ways, which form a basis for a closer observation of the group: First, two continuously descending fourths form the framework of the

melody; thus Nos. 6 and 9 in Bulletin 45 are based on the descending intervals D-A, A-E, ending with the descending tonic triad D-B-G in the closing measures. No, 3 in Bulletin 45 and No. 82 in the present volume are based on the intervals C sharp-G sharp, F sharp-C sharp. Second, the melody is based on two descending intervals of a fourtli, the second interval being only one tone below the first. No. 28 in the present volume is based on the intervals E flat-B flat, D flat-A flat. (See also No. 23.) Third, the interval of the fourth is especially prominent but this interval is, as it were, inclosed in the interval of the fifth; thus in tlie present instance (No. 22) the intervals which form the framework of the first four measures are the fifths E flat- A fiat, D flat-G fiat, but the principal intervals are the fourths D flat- A flat, C flat-G flat. The next four measures are characterized by descending fourths, the third of the tonic chord appearing for the fh'st time in the final measure. The close of the song suggests that there should be another measure ending on G flat but that G flat was below the range of the singer's voice.

Smce 1 1 per cent of the series of 340 songs have a common melodic characteristic, we note with interest that they have also a common subject, all being songs concerning motion (20) or animals (15), in some instances the two ideas being combined. The single exception is a love song which contains the words "I sit here thinking of her." While the idea of motion is not expressed therein, it can not be considered entirely absent from the mind of the singer.

The numbers and titles (or words) of this group of songs are as follows :

(a) SONGS CONCERNING MOTION

"I am raising my pipe"

"A bubbling spring comes frum tlie hard ground"

"You are going around the Mide^ lodge"

"The shell goes toward them and ihey fall "

"The flame goes up to my body "

"To the spirit land I am going, I am walking"

"The big bear, to his lodge I go often "

"The women are enjoying it [the dance] with us" Present volume :

No. 22. " I arise from the flowing spring "

No. 32. "The prairie land whence I arise"

No. 34. "The Sioux women gather up their wounded"

No. 39. " Odjib'we brings back our brother "

No. 105. "Go with me"

No. 106. "Now I go"

No. 110. " I go around weeping "

No. 111. "Come, let us sing"

No. 121. Ca'wiino'ga dance

No. 162. "The sound of his approaching footsteps"

No. 170. "Work steadily, I am afraid they will take you away from me"

No. 174. "You shall depart"

Bulletin 45:

No.

No.

No.

No.

No.

No.

No.

No.

DEXSMOKEl CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 101

(b) SONGS CONCERNING ANIMALS (USUALLY RKPRESENTED AS IN MOTION)

Bulletin 45:

No. 3. "In form like a bird it a])pears" No. 121. "I am afraid of the uwl " No. 19G. "Round-hoofed had pity on me" Present volume:

No. 23. "Strike ye our land with curved horns"

No. 28. "My bird-skin charm is my trust '"

No. 64. "The ravens are singing"

No. 82. " Riding on my horse "

No. 85. "I am walking in the sky. a bird I accompany"

No. 95. Song of the deer (a)

No. 9G. Song of the deer (h)

No. 97. Song of the deer dancing

No. 103. Moccasin game song taught by a manido' in the form of a bear (a)

No. 104. Moccasin game song taught by a manido' in the form of a bear (b)

No. 147. "One bird, I am going with him"

No. 180. "The crawfish cringes"

Songs in praise of bi'jikiwuck' were sung in the war dances. When singing these songs the warriors imitated the action of wild cattle, holding then- arms above their heads to simulate horns and pretending to paw the ground; they imitated also the calls of various wild animals, these being calls which they intended to use in decoying the Sioux.

No. 23. Dancing Song of the Bi'jikiwuck' (Catalogue No. 382) Sung by Main'gans ("little wolf'')

Recorded without drum

f-m- -0- -0- -•- -^

f^^^-^w^^i^m^i^^^^

Bi - ti-go-cka-mok gi - ta - ki - mi-uan e

^1

bl - ti -go-cka-mok

^«_

i=4

m'^^^!it^^fErE^tmn^^^^m^'^

gi - ta-ki-mi - nan e bl - ti-go-cka-mok gi - ta - ki - mi-nan e

^ — ^ — ^ — J=F^

:2z

^^

bl - ti - go - cka-mok

-•- -•- -•- -i5>-

'ft—W—P—^

• •—

i - ta - ki - mi - nan

-• — •-

t=HF=BE

we-wa - gi - wi - ni bi - ti - go-cka-mok gi - ta - ki - mi-nan e

r^ ^ . ^ ^ T^ — " n I

-m^

^^

-n-^^

m

-^— ^-

^— ^

■9,—^-

;IEE

f — ft — fznf—^

bl - ti-go-cka-mok gi - ta-ki - mi-nan

we - wa - gi - wi

igEg

:p^:

-•-^•—ii—m~Y^-

li^^i^SiEiilpB

bl - ti - go - cka-mok

gi - ta - ki - mi - nan

bi^tigo'ckamok' strike ye

gi^takiminaii^ our land

wewa^giwini' with curved horns

Analysis. — The descending interval of the fourth is especiallyprominent in this melody (see analysis of No. 22). The fu'st five measures comprise the rhythmic unit, which is well adapted to the expression of the words. This rhytlim, combined with the peculiar melodic outline, causes the song to produce an effect of rugged strength.

During the preparation of mi'nismo'wftck ("island herb medicine") and also before a battle the following four songs were sung by the

densmore]

warriors to make the medicine cfTectual as a charm. This group of songs was rendered by Na'waji'bigo'kwe ("woman dwelhng in the midst of the rocks").

No. 24. First Song of the Mrnisino^wflck

Sung by Na^waji'bioo'kwe

Drdm J— 108

Ka - ga - gi - wi - wan nin - dau ba-on - dji - o-non

rtiiKi^S^iH^il^iliili

wi - hi-ysLii ka - ga -gi-wi- wan nin-dau ba-ou

dji -o-non-ge - ivi - yan

[Free translation]

kaga^'giwiwan' 1 light as a raven's feather

nindan >

ba^ondji'onongeyan^ J is my flight

Analysis. — Tliis melody was sung very slowly with a rapid drumbeat. The song is harmonic in structure and contains tlie tones of the fourth five-toned scale. The rhythmic unit does not vary in the four renditions of the song, but there is a slight variation in unimportant melody progressions. Attention is directed to the register of the woman's voice. Several other phonographic records made by Chippewa women show the same register.

All the songs of this series close with the ejaculations We ho Jto ho, which characterize also the Mde' songs.

[Bn.L. 5o

No. 25. Second Sonj; of Ihe Mrnisiiio'wuek

Sung by Na^waji'bigo^kwe

DbDM J :ii; 92

LiFtt ._! L J

gi - jig e. - JO - ho - ne - he gi - jig e - yo - Ao - ne - he

gi - jig e-yo -Ao-nt - he

he

(i - jig e - JO - ho-ne - he

^ji|=tL^^

r"

n r"

S^^EE

-p-^ — ^-

-I— ^- h^F-F F-

^B

gi - jig g- jo-ho-ne -he gi - jig e -yo- ho-ne -he gi - jig e-jo-ho-ne - he

gi^jig the heavens

e^yoyan^ ' I tise

Analysis. — The words imply that the heavens are secured as a defense by the singer. In all the renditions of this song the drum is struck after the melody tone is sung. This gives an effect of great irregularity to the performance and also shows tlie independence of vocal and instrumental expression. The rhythmic unit, whicli is accurately repeated, occurs 11 times. The double measures vary in length and apparently serve as resting places for the voice.

1 See footnote 2, p. 89.

dexsmore]

No. 2(>. Third Song of the MrnTsiiu/wfick

Suntr by Na^waji'bigo'kwe

(Catalotrue No. 375)

Voice ^5) . — 76 Recorded without drum

»—^

:t=^-

:^:

t=l=:^:

4-=^

:^==l

-z^ -^- # -^ -s^ S- S- 1^- -s)-

Ga-ml-iio- gi - we - pfi- ya -ya- lie he ga - mi-no- gi - we - pfi -ya - ya - ne

n f

=^-E«iE^^^i£

• 19-

i

-#- -S^- -i^ -P^ T^- -2^« '^

ga - mi-no- gi - we - pu-ya - ya -ne ga - mi-no gi - we - pu - ya- ya - ue

ga''minogi'wepu'yane' I will return to my home in safety

Analysis. — Tliis melody contains no tones except those comprised in the rhythmic unit, which was steadily maintained throughout tlie six renditions. Owing to the rapid tempo, tlie measure is a more convenient metric unit than the individual count in the measure; thus the metronome indication is for a dotted lialf instead of a quarter note. The song is harmonic in structure and contams the tones of the fourth five-toned scale; it was recorded without the drum.

No. 27. Fourth Song of the MriiMno'wuck

Sung by Na^waji'bigo^kwe

Recorded without drum

I "

Na-mundj-ge - do-gwen e ba - on -dji- o - nan -ge-yau e

^^u»rr-^ ^^

mm

-0 (=i:

-•- -•- -•- -•- -•--!•--#- -^- -19-

na-m(indj-ge - do-gwen ba- on-dji - o - nan- ge-yan e

#- -6'-

gi#7j£=i=t

Si

i=t=p

•— ^-

^^^^iiiil

na-mfindj-ge - do-gwen e ba - on - dji - o - nan - ge - yan

rJ

:t=t:

:=t=t:

=P=t==

■4:->g <9

S^E^

na-mfindj-ge - do-gwen bu - on -dji - bfi - si - gwi-yan

V-

d=i=

1^

:f=^=:i:

■4:-(g— -(&

na-niQndj -ge - do-gwen bfi - on - dji - bfl. - si - gwi-yan

namiindj^gedogwen^ it is uncertain what will happen

baondji'onan^geyan^ to the (jne from whom I fly

namundj'gedogwen' it is uncertain what will happen

bliondji^usigwiyan' to the one from whom I rise

Analysis. — This moUuly is unusually irregular in form. The principal measures are in 7-4 time; thfe rhythmic unit contains three measures and occurs five times. Four renditions were secured; these are identical except that after the first rendition the singer omitted part of tlie last phrase, closing with the calls We ho Jio Tio. Apparently this was done to avoid the very low tone at the close, which was sung with difficulty. The song is freely melodic in structure and contains all the tones of the octave except the seventh.

If a great fight were expected, the Chippewa made preparations for the care of the wounded. Litters were constructed of poles, these being especially required, as the Sioux always pursued the Chippewa in an effort to capture the wounded. Every war party included an

dexsmore]

oUl man whose duly it was to carry an extra supply of medicine and of water; he did not fight but hehl himseU in readuiess to attend those in need of assistance. The feather flag (see p. 91) was carried by one of the bravest warriors, who ran to and fro with it during the fight. This man was a target for the Sioux and defended the flag with his hfe. The drum was beaten during the contest by one of the warriors, who also sang to inspu-e the men. This duty likewise required special courage. Before entering a fight the leaders arrayed themselves in brilliant trappmgs. Each wore a band around the head in which were bright feathers; this rendered them conspicuous and showed their fearlessness. The neck was usually encircled by a charm consisting of the dried skin of a bird, which contamed a medicme known only to the wearer (see p. 77). This charm was wrapped in birch bark but before a battle the warrior tore off the cover, exposing the bird skin, and also sang the song which should make the charm effectual. The followmg song was used for this purpose.

No. 28. Song of a War Charm (Catalogue No. 369)

Sung by Odjib'we

We - go - nen

1 - wi - ne

s=

ya - Aa-han nin-bi-nes - i -wa-yan e he he e e - pe-ni-moya - Aa-bau e we-go-nen - i - wi - ne - he-he-ne e - pe - ni - mo-yan e

wegonen''iwinen'' ' in what

epe'nimoyan^ is my trust?

ninbines^iwayan' my bird-skin charm

epe'nimoyan^ is my trust

1 See footnote 2, p. 89.

Analysis. — This son^ is transcrilxHl in the key ol" D flat, though the third of that key does not appear in the melody (see analysis of No. 53). In broad outline the framework of the melody may be said to be the descending interval of the fourth — E flat-B flat, and D flat-A flat (see analysis of No. 22). The song is regular in form, the rhythmic unit occurring four times; the first two occurrences contain the words of the question whUe the last two contain the answer.

According to OdjibVe the Chippewa always sang, if possible, before attacking the enemy. If the attack were to be made at daybreak, the Chippewa crept stealthily to an ambush near the village, the drum was beaten very softly, and the following song was sung in subdued tones. Then came a piercing yeU as the warriors dashed on the sleeping enemy. In open fight the war cry of the Chij)pewa was Bwan, Bwan,^ the word by which they designated a Sioux. Odjib'we stated that the leader started the drum song. The title is not fully explained, but may liave been suggested by the muffled throb of the drum, which impressed itself indelibly on the mind.

No. 29. Drum Song (Catalogue No. 341)

Sung by Odjib^we

Ga-ki-na - ni -ni - mi-ag o - gi - tcl-dag e en-da-cl - wad e

t-»^.0-j2^^fi.

ya e

ga - ki -ua - ni - ni - mi - ag o - gl - tcl - dag e en - da - ci -

11 r

wad e ga-ki - na - ni-ni-mi - ag o - gi - tci-dag en-da -ex - wad c

gakina'ninimiag^ I make them dance

ogi'tcidag^ ^ those brave men

en^daciwad'. every one of them

Analysis. — This melody is grouped about the tones of the chord of A minor, but begins on the tone above the fifth of that chord, a similar approach to the harmonic tone being found hi the fourth and fifth measures from the close of the song (see analysis of No. 53).

' The full form of this word is Ahwan', jjlural Ab'wan''&g ("Roasters'"), but the contraction is the form in common use. (See Warren's History of the Ojibways, in Colls. Minn. Hist. Soc, vol. v, 1S,S5, p. 30.) 2 From Sioux aki'cita + g (ug), Chippewa plural ending. See also ])p. 7(1, 180, 190, 230.

DENSJIOUE]

Tlic tone material comprises only the first, second, third, fifth, and sixth tones of tlie minor scale, the second beuig lowered in one measm'e. Although the song is minor in tonality it is found that 8 of the 17 intervals (47 per cent) are major thirds. (See Nos. 83, 99.) The reverse of this, namely, prominence of minor thirds in songs of major tonality, is considered in the analyses of Nos. 140, 141, 1,51, 161, 163. The rhythmic unit is repeated once accurately but is slightly changed at the close of the song, this change relieving the monotony and giving cliaracter to the rhythm of the song as a whole. The metric unit of voice ami drum is the same, the voice slightly ])receding the drumbeat.

Three renditions of the song were recorded; these are identical in every respect. After a lapse of eight months the song was again recorded, the repetition of the melody being exact but the words being slightly different.

When the Chippewa met the Sioux in open fight one of their number might inspire the others to bravery by making himself a target. Throwing aside his weapons and divesting himself of all clothmg, he rushed toward the enemy. If the Sioux failed to kiU him at the first shot, it was permissible for him to attempt to escape. It is said that a man namecl Ogima'wudjiweb' ("chief of the mountains") had an experience of this kind and made his escape.

No. 30. Song of a Man Who Rushed Toward the Enemy

Sung by Odjib'we (Catalogue No. 329)

Ni - dji - ki-we - i-dog e ge -go ji - mo-ke -gun

i^-i

nin zon-gi - de-e

nidjiki'weidog' my friends

ge^go 'do not

o'jimoke^gun ' flee

nin I

zon'gidee^ am strong-hearted

1 The first syllable of this word was omitted because the previous word ends with the same vowel. See footnote, p. 90.

Analysis. — The rhythmic unit of this song is short but interesting. It occurs three times and comprises the entire song except that part which contains the words. (See Nos. 1, 8, 12, 13, 39, 40, 81, 105.) The song was recorded four times, the renditions being uniform except that in the fourth from the last measure the progressions vary slightly. It is worthy of note that this is the only measure whose principal tones are not those of the chord of F minor. The melody is strongly harmonic in feeling, although classified as melodic because of the accented B flat.

The difference in intonation between the first and second E flat in measures 1 and 3 is interesting, as it appears in all the renditions. The song contains ten measures and is divided into four parts. The metric unit is slower than in most Chippewa songs. A slow metric unit is found in other songs of self-control under excitement (see songs Nos. 51, 52, 103, 161). As a rhythmic wliole this song is particularly complete and satisfactory.

During a fight a man frequently sang his dream song or a song which he had composed concernmg a former victory. Odjib'we stated that in time of great excitement a man would smg louder but probably no faster than was his usual custom. It is said that the following song was composed and sung on a field of battle by a woman named Omiskwa'wegi'jigo'kwe ("woman of the red sky"), the wife of the leader, who went with him mto the fight suiging, dancing, and urging him on. At last she saw him kill a Sioux. Full of the fire of battle, she longed to play a man's part and scalp the slain. Custom forbade that Chippewa women use the scalping knife, although they carried the scalps in the victory dance.

DEN'S MORE J

No. 31. If I Had Been a Man

Sung by OdjSEb'we

A - pi - dGc i - ni - ni-yan - ban

ke - get i - ni - ni nin - da

gi - ta-bi - bi - ua

^-n^-

^-ESE-a

5=5^rf

-p— ^ -if.

^^1^

apiMuc at that time

inini^iyanban ' if I had been a man

keggt' truly

ini^'ni a man

nindagi'tabibina^ I would have seized

Analysis. — The first j^rogression of an ascending octave, followed by a descent along the tones of the tonic chord, characterizes this melody (see analysis of No. 9). The harmonic feeling is strong throughout the song, the accented C in the sixth measure being the only departure from the tonic and submediant chords. There is no rhythmic unit, but the rhythm of the song as a whole is complete and satisfactory.

Three renditions of the song were recorded. In each the tempo was more rapid and less regular in the four measures following the words, returning in tlie last two measures to the metric unit of the beginning. This unit is slow, as in other songs of self-control. The more rapid and free rhythm of the middle part is the more interesting if considered in connection with the words and origin of the song. Other songs com])osed by women are Nos. 39, 40, 112, 127, 151, 177, 178.

When a Chippewa shot a Sioux he shouted, ''I have killed a Sioux," and others took up the call, adding the victor's name. Thus other warriors were nerved to renewed endeavor. After the fight the

1 A syllable is omitted to make the words conform to the music.

BUREAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY

names were remembered, and the warriors were given proper credit. In the old days each warrior marked his arrows, hence it could usually be determined by whose hands the slain fell ; but after the intro- duction of guns it would have been impossible to ascertain who had killed the Sioux unless the call above mentioned were given during the engagement.

It was not unusual for a warrior to sink exhausted (hiring a fight. This misfortune once befell Odjib'we, and the incident was related by his friend Niski'gwun, who was present on one occasion when Odjib'we was recording songs on the phonograpli. Niski'gwun was with Odjib'we in many of the contests with the Sioux. Niski'gwtin stated that on one occasion Odjib'we went into a fight without his ''medicine." The fight had scarcely begun wlien Odjib'we appeared to be almost ])aralyzed. He was not able to strike a blow in his own defense and would have fallen an easy prey to the Sioux had not Niski'gwun rushed to him and given him medicine from his own bag, mixing it with water. Niski'gwfm also sprayed the medicine on Odjib'we's feet and limbs with a wisp of brusli. This re'ived him and enabled him to rise. Soon he was entirely himself and the fight was won, the Sioux village being captured.

Niski'gwtin stated that he sang the following song when he applied the medicine.

No. 32. Song of Help in the Fight (Catalogue No. 385)

Sung by Niski'gwun

r 1:7==^ 1

•- *

• .^ .^. .a-

.^ .,-

^j^HgEgjIgggJEiiiE!

MGc-ko

de

a - kill we-yan-e

ba - si - gwi-yan e

m

[-

ii:

tete

~i

t:

t^

^:

±-z±

:t

mfic - ko

de

a - kin we - yan - e

ba - si - gwi-yan e

=§4^:

mfic- ko

:p

-iS*—

Ii

'~^

t—[:—tde a - kin we - yan - e

ba - si - gwi-yan e

rauckode'' 1h(» ]Mairie

akin^ land

weyan'eba^sigweyan'. , whence I arise

DEXSMORE] CHIPPEWA MUSIC II 113

Analysis. — Four renditions of this song were recorded, in all of which the final word was mispronounced, this license being allowed in Chippewa songs. On the octave and fifth the intonation is fairly correct, and these tones were sung firmly; the other tones are variable in pitch, and the transcription should be understood as approximate. The signature is that of the key of D, as both F sharp and C sharp occur in the melody, but the "sense of key" is not clear. It seems probable that the singer's recollection of tlie song was not quite distinct. The rhythmic unit contains seven measures, and its repeti- tions comprise the entire song. The framework of the melody is the descending interval of the fourtli, a peculiarity which is fully considered in the analysis of Xo. 22. Wliile this is not an inspiring mel- od}^, there is something in it deeper and stronger than enthusiasm; there are steadiness and control. Strongest of all is the idea of the words — the picture of the prairie, calm in its consciousness of power.

The following three songs relate to one of Odjib'we's war expeditions and illustrate the singing of a death song and the composing of songs concerning a notable victory.

These songs are connected with an expedition against a Sioux village called Gaye'dawima'miwM C'lake in the valley"), which was located on the upper waters of the Minnesota River; its chief was known among the Chippewa as Manda'mlnes (Little Corn). A war party of more than a hundred Chippewa attacked this village and the first man killed was the Sioux chief. During the fight the Sioux women rushed out and dragged back the wounded men that they might not be scalped. Although seven of their number were killed the Chippewa would have been victorious had not a large party of Sioux come on the field from a distance. Finding themselves outnumbered, the Chippewa began to retreat. The Sioux used poisoned arrows. One of the Chippewa warriors was wounded in the foot by a barbed, poisoned arrow, but his friends were able to carry him away. The Sioux followed the Chippewa a long distance and many of the former were killed in this running fight. Name'bines' (Little Carp), a leading warrior of the Chippewa, was terribly wounded in the abdomen. His retreating comrades tried to take him with them but after a time, realizing that the attempt was useless, at his own request he was laid in a clump of bushes. There his friends left him with his gun, saying, "Defend yourself as best you can." Soon the Sioux came in hot pursuit of the Chippewa and from his hiding place Name'bines' shot a man. With ebbing strength he gave his last war whoop and his friends heard him cry, "Men, I have killed a Sioux."

When Name'bines' was laid in the bushes he sang his death song, which he is said to have composed at that time. Looking into the faces of his comrades he said, "Wlien you reach home sing this for the women to dance by and tell them how I died." 67996°— Bull. 53—13 S

No. 33. Death Song of Name'bines^ (Catalogue No. 335)

Sung by Odjib^we

^

r:

nr

Ni - ma - ji-man-dis ni - ma - ji-man-dls nim - bi - dji-man-dis nim -

bi-dji-man-dis nim - bi-dji-man-dLs e - na - su-mi - ka-yan e

nima^jiman^dis the odor of death

nimbi'djiman'dis I discern the odor of death

gna'sumi^kayau' in the front of my body

Analysis. — Ten renditions of this song are on the phonograph cylinder, the transcription being from the eighth rendition. The words vary in the several renditions, sometimes only one word being used or jrneaningless syllables sung. The principal variation in intonation is on the tone A in the second measure. The intonation of the last three measures is uniform and the rhythm of the entire song shows no variation. The song contains a short rhythmic unit, which occurs five times without interruption. The last three measures are in a different rhythm. (Compare Nos. 4, 5, 19, 34.) In these measures the length of the tones is unusually regular and the voice and drum exactly coincide. The structure of this song is interesting. The accented tones follow the intervals of the triad of A minor and the unaccented tones in the fourth and sixth measures introduce the chord of C major, the song being in the major key. Thus the first two measures are on the chord of A minor and the next two measures on that of C major; then follows a measure in A minor (without the third), giving way again to C major in the last three measures. This alternation of minor and major is worthy of special note in connection with the origin of the song. (See No. 128.)

At the first camp after this fight the Chippewa composed a song, the words of which refer to the Sioux women who came from the village to drag back the wounded men.

DEXSMOKE

No. 34. "The Sioux Women Gather Up their Wounded"

Sung by Odjib'we

Voice J— lOO ( Drum-rhj^thm similar to No. 3 )

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O -ma-mi-kweg o ya ne pa-ba - ma-de - mo-wfig

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da - ba - ma - wlin e o - di - ni - ni - mi - wiln e a - ni - mu-.

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de -■ mu - wfig e

Oma-'mikweg' the Sioux womon

paba'made'mowiig' pass to and fro wailing

onaMjida^bamawun' as they gather up

o'dinini'niiwun their wounded men

ani^mude^muwug' the voice of their weeping comes back to

Us

Analysis. — Six renditions of this song were recorded, the transcription being from the third rendition. The rhythm and the melody tones are the same in all the renditions but the words vary slightly, affecting the length of the tones; for instance,, the word meaning ''village" is used in one rendition and the order of the words is sometimes changed. The tonality is minor but, as in many similar songs, the tonic does not appear in the opening measures. (See analysis of No. 9, also of Nos. 1, 83, 94, 120.) This song contains a short rhythmic unit which is repeated without variation except for the addition of a quarter note after the second occurrence of the unit. The closing measures are in a different rhythm (see Nos. 4, 5, 19, 33) and the rhythm of tlie song has a well-defined individuality. The interval of the fourth is especially prominent. (See analysis of No. 22.)

On their homeward journey the Chippewa composed another song. Kemembering the tread of the pursuing enemy, they sang of war as a game with the bodies of the dead as its score.

[BULL. 5o

No. 35. "They are Playing a Game" (Catalogue No. 342) Sung by Odjib'we

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Ga - bi - mi - bi - di-kweg mfic - ko- (

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di-wfig e

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ga-bi- mi - bi - di-kweg mfic-ko -

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deng bi- mi - a - ta - di-wfig e i - nt - ni-wQg e

ga- bi-mi - bi-di

kweg muc-ko-deng bi-mi - a - ta - di-wftg e i - ni - ul-wug e

gabimi^bidikweg' the noise of passing feet

niiic'kodeng' on the prairie

biuii^atadiwug'' they are playing a game as they come

ini^niwiig^ those men

Analysis. — This ^melody is based on the tones of the minor triad, the sixth being used as a passing tone and occurring only once. The song contams a rhythmic unit eight measures in length, which occurs three times, is accurately repeated, and comprises the entire song. It is worthy of note that the song contains only one upward progression; this occurs between the second and third sections of the song. The compass of the song is unusual, as it begins on the tenth above the tonic and ends on the fifth in the octave below the tonic. Four renditions of the melody were recorded; the intonation of the tones marked — is uniform in the several renditions.

Odjib'we stated that on one occasion a warrior sank exhausted as the war party was returning home. The other warriors, reluctant to leave him a prey to some wandering enemy, stayed with liim. It seemed imi)ossible for him to rise. However, he used his medicine, and after a time sprang to his feet, singing this song, which he composed at the time. The war party resumed its journey, and he accompanied them, stiU singing his new song.

DENRMOKE]

CHIPPEWA MUSIC^ — II

No. 36. Soiifc <»f tln' ExhaiistiMl Warrior

Sung by Odjib'we

Ba - ba

pi - ni

SI - wa - gun

ee - non -de - ci - nan

i e ba - ba - pi - ni - si - wa - gun ge - non -de - ci - nan

m^m^m

nin - ga - a - da - won- ge - yen

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g^a-^a^EJ3-j^iii^^

ge-on- dji-da-go

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baba'pinifsiwa^gun alas

genonMecinan' I can not travel

ninga^ada^wongen^2 but I will borrow that

geondjiMago^cinan^ by means of which I can arrive

Analysis. — Three renditions of this song were recorded; these are uniform in every respect. This uniformity is of interest, as the rhythmic unit is long and irregular; it occurs three times without variation. The remamder of the song contains fragments of the unit, but no complete repetition. The song is minor in tonality and is characterized by the sharped seventh, which is found but rarely in the minor songs under analysis. By this accidental the song is more fully identified with what is commonly termed the nunor scale. The relation of the rhythm to the content of the song is worthy of note, the effect of perturbation in the first part of the song being contrasted with the more regular rhythm of the latter part.

1 Where no words appear in the music above, meaningless syllables were sung.

• A syllable is added to this word to make it conform to the music.

Songs on the Return of a Victorioits War Party

On retui'iiiug, ji victorious war party seat riiimers in advance to carry the news of their approach, and preparations for a suitable reception were begun at once. Meantime the warriors made their hist camp before reaching home; liere tliey rehearsed the songs concernuig the victory and arrayed themselves m their finest apparel. Then began the final stage of the journey. As they approached the village they fired guns as a signal and the women came out to meet them. One woman led the party, to whom were given the scalps taken by the warriors. Each scalp was dried, and fastened inside a lioop at the end of a pole. Occasionally several were fastened in the same hoop (see pi. 17, showing five scalps in a decorated lioop). Frequently a man gave his wife the Sioux scalp he had taken. The women took the warriors' blankets, beadwork^ and tobacco bags, and even their guns, none of which were they required to return. Then the women led the procession, the scalp bearers in advance, waving the scalps and singing. After the party reached the village preparations for the victory dance were begun. A suitable place was selected, to which was carried a large quantity of food— dried meat, wild rice, and maple sugar. The poles bearmg the Sioux scalps were stuck in the ground beside the pile of food, and the feast was called "feasting the Sioux." There was no song connected with this feast. After the feast a simple ceremony in praise of the warriors took place. The victors were seated in a row and their friends brought gifts, which were laid before them. Often the following song was sung at this time. The words of this song require explanation. According to Odjib'we, defeated warriors were treated with scorr. and derision when they returned. This is the song of victorious Gul' Lake warriors, who were being honored at some other village, th^ inference intended to be drawn from the words being the exact oppo site of their direct translation. Odjib'we stated that the words the song meant ''at Gull Lake [our home] they wUl be proud of m but the correct translation is as given. This song w'as recorc' three times, a period of several weeks elapsing between the r ., ditions. The words varied somewhat, but Odjib'we stated that (-i have tlie same general meaning and that it was allowable to cha tlie words of a song provided the ''tunc" and the meanmg of words remauied the same.

FRONT BACK

SCALPS ATTACHED TO HOOP

DENSMOKE]

No. 37. Gift Song

Sung by Odjib'we

Recorded without drum

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