The Sia

By Matilda Coxe Stevenson.*

INTRODUCTION.

All that remains of the once populous pueblo of Sia is a small group of houses and a mere handful of people in the midst of one of the most extensive ruins of the Southwest (PI. i) the living relic of an almost extinct people and a pathetic tale of the ravages of warfare and pestilence. This picture is even more touching than the infant's cradle or the tiny sandal found buried in the cliff in the canyon walls. The Sia of to-day is in much the same condition as that of the ancient cave and cliff dweller as we restore their villages in imagination.

The cosmogony and myths of the Sia point to the present site as their home before resorting to the mesa, which was not, however, their first mesa home ; their legends refer to numerous villages on mountain tops in their journeying from the north to the center of the earth.

The population of this village was originally very large, but from it« situation it became a target during intertribal feuds. A time came, however, when intertribal strife ceased, and the pueblo tribes united their strength to oppose a common foe, an adversary who stnick terror to the heart of the Indian, inasmuch as he not only took possession of their villages and homes, but was bent upon uprooting the ancestral religion to plant in it« stead the Itoman Catholic faith. To avoid this result the Sia tied to the mesa and built a village, but the foe was not to be thus easily bailled and the mesa village was brought under subjection. That these people again struggled for their freedom is evident from the report of Vargas of his visit there in 1692:

The pneblo had been destroyed a few years before by Cruzate, but it had not been rebuilt. The troops entered it the next morning. It was situated upon the mesa of Cerro Colorado, and the only approach to it was up tlie side of the plat<.'au by a steep and rocky road. The only thing of value found there was the bell of the convent, which was ordered to bo buried. The Indians had built a new village near the ruins of the old one. When they saw the Spaniards approach they came forth to meet and bid them welcome, carrying crosses in their hands, and the chiefs marching at their heads. In this manner they escorted Vargas and his troops f o the plaza, where arches

'The author nieDtu^nH gratefully tho Hbnre of thiH work pi^rformetl by her \ate luiNliand, Mr. Jameis Stevensou. whoso uotott tnkon during IiIh la^t y<'ar'H work in tho field have, bocn frocly UHed by her and whodo life intereat iu the North Anieriran Indians ban IxM'n her inspiration.

10 THE 81 A.

and cro88€f6 were erected, llnd good qnarters provided them. He caased the inhabitants to be assembled, when he explained to them the object of his visit and the man- ner in which he intended to pnnish all the rebellious Indians. This concludedy the nsual ceremonies of taking possession, baptism and absolntion, took place.'

And the Sia were again under Spanish thraldom; but though they made this outward show of submitting to the new faith^ neither then nor since have they wavered in their devotion to their aboriginal religion.

The ruins upon the mesa, showing well-defined walls of rectangular stone structures northwest of the present village, are of considerable magnitude, covering many acres. (PL ii.) The Indians, however, declare this to have been the great farming districts of P6-shai-yan-ne (quasi messiah), each field being divided from the others by a stone wall, and that their village was on the mesa eastward of the present one.

The distance from the water and the field induced the Sia to return to their old home, but wars, pestilence, and oppression seem to have been their heritage. When not contending with the marauding nomad and Mexican, they were sufiering the effects of disease, and between murder and epidemic these people have been reduced to small numbers. The Sia declare that this condition of affairs continued, to a greater or less degree, with but short periods of respite, until the murders were arrested by the intervention of our Government. For this they are profoundly grateful, and they are willing to attest their gratitude in every possible way.

The Sia to-day number, according to the census taken in 1890, 106, and though they no longer suffer at the murderous hand of an enemy, they have to contend against such diseases as smallpox and diphtheria, and it will require but a few more scourges to obliterate this remnant of a people. They are still harassed on all sides by depredators, much as they were of old; and long-continued struggle has not only resulted in the depletion of their numbers, but also in mental deterioration.

The Sia resemble the other pueblo Indians; indeed, so strikingly alike are they in physical structure, complexion, and customs that they might be considered one and the same people, had it not been discovered through philological investigation that the languages of the pueblo Indians have been evolved from four distinct stocks.

Sia is situated upon an elevation at the base of which flows the Jemez river. The Bio Salado empties into the Jemez some 4 miles above Sia and so impregnates the waters of the Jemez with salt that while it is at all times most unpalatable, in the summer season when the river is drained above, the water becomes undrinkable, and yet it is this or nothing with the Sia.

For neighbors they have the people of the pueblo of Santa Ana, 6 miles to the southeast, who speak the same language, with but slight variation, and the pueblo of Jemez, 7 miles north, whose language,

according to Powell's classification, is of another stock, the Taiioan.

» .

I Davii), Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, 1869, pp. 351, 352.

I I

OTivEfsoKj CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. 11

The Mexican town of San Ysidro is 5^ miles above Sia, and there are several Mexican settlements north of Jemez. Tiie Mexican town of Bernalillo is on the east bank of the Rio (Traiide, 17^ miles eastward.

Though Protestant missionaries have been stationed at the pueblo of Jemez since 1878, no attempt has been made to brin^ the Sia within the pale of Protestantism. The Catholic mission priest who resides at Jemez makes periodical visits to the Sia, when services are held, marriages performed, infants baptized, and prayers offered for the dead.

The miflflions at Cia and Jemez were fonnded previoas to 1617 and after 1605. They existed without interraption until about 1622, when the Navajos compelled the abandonment of the two chnrchen at San Diego and San Joseph of Jemez. About fonr years later, through the exertions of Fray Martin de Arvide, these missions were reoccupied, and remained in uninterrupted operation until August 10, 1680. The mission at Cia, as far as I know, suffered no great calamity until that date. After the oprising of 1680 the Cia miHsion remained vacant until 1694. Thence on it has been always maintained, slight temporary vacancies excepted, up to this day. The mission of San Diego de Jemez was occu)>ied in 1694 by Fray Francisco de Jesus, whom the Indians murdered on the 4th of June of 1696. In consequence of the uprising on that day, the Jemez abandoned their country, and returned, settling on the present site of their pueblo only in 1700. The first resident priest at Jemez became Fray Diego Chabarria, in 1701. Since that date I find no further interruption in the list of missionaries.'

The Sia are regarded with contempt by the Santa Ana and the Jemez Indians, who never omit an opportunity to give expression to their scorn, feeling assured that this handful of people must submit to insult without hope of redress. Limited intertribal relations exist, and these principally for the purpose of traffic.

Though the Sia have considerable irrigable lands, they have but a meager supply of water, this being due to the fact that after the Mexican towns above them and the pueblo of Jemez have drawn upon the waters of the Jemez river, little is left for the Sia, and in order to have any success with their crops they must curtail the area to be cultivated. Thus they never raise grain enough to supply their needs, even with the practice of the strictest economy according to Indian understanding, and therefore depend upon their more successful neighbors who labor under no such difficulties. The Jemez peojde have no lack of water supply, and the Santa Ana have their farming districts on the banks of the liio Grande. Is it strange, then, that two pueblos are found progressing, however slowly, toward a European civilization, while the Sia, though slightly intiuenced by the Mexicans, have, through their environment, been led not only to cling to autochthonic culture but to lower their plane of social and mental condition f

The Sia women labor industriously at the ceramic art as soon as their grain supply becomes reduced, and the men carry the wares to their unfriendly neiglibors for tnide in ex('hange for wheat and corn. While the Santa Ana and Jemez make a litth* jjottery, it is very coarse in texture and in form; in tact, they can not be classed as potterymaking Indians. (PI. in.)

'The writer i« indebted to Mr. A. F. naiiilt^ier for the informatiun regarding the Catholic miaaiona.

12 THK SIA.

As long as the Sia cau induce the traders through the coaatry to take their pottery they refi'ain from barter with their Indian neighbors. (PI. IT.) Tbe women usnally dispose of the articles to the traders {Figs. 1 and 2), but tliey never venture on expeditions to the Santa Ana and the Jemez.

Each year a period comes, Just before the harvest time, when no more pottery in required by their Indian neighbors, and tbe Sia must deal out their food in sucli limited portions that the elders go hungry in order to satisfy the cbiJdren, Wben starvation threatens ttiere is no thought for tbe cbildreu of the clan, but the head of each household

ipoae of poHory.

looks to tbe wants of its own, and there is apparent indifference to the sufferings of ucigbbors. When qnestioned, they reply: "We feel sad for our brothers and our sisters, ttut we have not enough for our own." Thus, when driven to extremes, nature asserts itself in tbe nearest ties of consanguinity and tbe "elan" 1>ecomes secondary. At these times there are no expressions of dissatisfaction and no attempt on the |)art of tbe stntuger to take advantage of tbe weaker. The expression of tbe men changes t<» a stoii-al resi^jnation, and tlie women's faces grow a shade paler with tbe thought that in order to nourish their babes they themselvi's must be nourished. And yet, sucti is their code of hospitality that f4H><l is :ilways offereil to guests its long as a morsel remains.

mm mm.

"_" ' -^ T_jrT^^Mf JH^^^Mj

SISTERS] CLEVEREST ARTISTS IN CERAMICS IK SIA.

BABTER.

So like children are these same Btoical »tid patieot ]>co[)lc that the tears of sorrow are qoickty di8i>elleil by the Kuutthiue of success. When their crops are gathered they hold their saiuts' day feast, when the Indians from near and far (even a fen- of the unfriendly Indians lending their nnveleome presence) Bnrfeit at their hoard. These pnhlic dances and feasts of thanksgiving in honor of their pati-ou stiint, upon the gathering of theii crops, which occur in all the Itio Grande pueblos, present a queer mixture of pagiiu and Christian religion. The priest owe« his success in maintaining a certain inllneoce with these people since the accession of New Mexico to the United States, by non-

^buiie tor pottei;.

interference with the introduction of their forms and dances into the worship taught by the church. Hence the Bio Grande Indians are professedly Catholics; hut the fact that these Iiulians nnd the Mission Indians of California have preserved their religions, admitting them to have been more or less influenced by Catholicism, and hold their ceremonials in secret, iiracticiug their oct^^nlt ]>owers to the present time, under the very eye of the church, is evidence not only of the tenacity with which they cling to their ancient customs, but of their cunning in maintaining i)erfect seclusitni.

When M^. Powell visited Tnsayan, in 1870, he was received with marked kindness by the Indians and permitted to attend the secret

14 THE 8IA.

ceremonials of their cult. The writer is of the opinion that he was the first and only white man granted this privilege by any of the pueblo Indians previous to the e:^pedition to Zuili, in 1879^ by Mr. Stevenson, of the Bureau of Ethnology.

The writer accompanied Mr. Stevenson on this occasion and during his succeeding investigations among the Zuni, Tusayan, and the Bio Grande Pueblos. And whenever the stay was long enough to become acquainted with the people the confidence of the priestly rulers and theurgists was gained, and after this conciliation all efforts to be present at the most secret and sacred performances observed and practiced by these Indians were successful. Their sociology and religion are so intricately woven together that the study of the one can not be pursued without the other, the ritual beginning at birth and closing with death.

While the religion of the Bio Grande Indians bears evidence of contact with Catholicism, they are in fact as non-Oatholic as before the Spanish conquest. Their environment by the European civilization of the southwest is, however, slowly but surely effecting a change in the observances of their cabalistic practices. For eiiample, the pueblo of Laguna was so disturbed by the Atlantic and Pacific railroad passing by its village that first one and then another of its families lingered at theranch houses, reluctant to return to their communal home, where they must come in contact with the hateful innovations of their land; and so additions were made to render the summer house more comfortable for the winter, and after a time a more substantial structure supplanted the temporary abode, and the communal dwelling was rarely visited except to comply with the religious observances. Some of these homes were quite remote from the village, and the men having gradually increased their stock of cattle found constant vigilance necessary to protect them from destruction by the railroad and the hands of the cowboy ; and so first one and then another of the younger men ventured to be absent from a ceremonial in order to look up some stray head of cattle, until the aged men cried out in horror that their children were forgetting the religion of their forefathers.

The writer knew of but one like delinquent among the Zuui when she was there in 1886. A son of one of the most bigoted priests in the village had become so eager to possess an American wagon, and his atten- tion was so absorbed in looking after his cattle with a view to the accumulation of means whereby to purchase a wagon, that he dared to absent himself from a most important and sacred ceremonial, notwithstanding the current belief that for such impiety the offender must die within four days. The father denounced him in the strongest terms, declaring he was no longer his son. And the man told the writer, on his return to the village, ^^ that he was afraid because he staid away, and he guessed he would die wkhiu four days, but some of his cattle had strayed off and he feared the cowboy." The fourth day passed

GROUP OF S1A VA6E&

and the man still lived, and the scales dropped from his eyes. From that time his religions duties were neglected in his eagerness for the accumulation of wealth.

Thus the railroad, the merchant, and the cowboy, without this purpose in view, are effecting a change which is slowly closing, leaf by leaf, the record of the religious beliefs and practices of the pueblo Indian. With the Sia this record book is being more rapidly closed, but from a different cause. It is not due to the Christianizing of these Indians, for they have nothing of Protestantism among them, and though professedly Catholic, they await only the departure of the priest to return to their secret ceremonials. The Catholic priest baptizes the infant, but the child has previously received the baptismal rite of its ancestors. The Catholic priest marries the betrothed, but they have been previously united according to their ancestral rites. The Romish priest holds mass that the dead may enter heaven, but prayers have already been offered that the soul may be received by Sft6-sIs-tin-na-ko (their creator) into the lower world whence it came. As an entirety these people are devotees to their religion and its observances, and yet with but few exceptions, they go through their rituals, having but vague understanding of their origin or meaning. Each shadow on the dial brings nearer to a close the lives of those upon whose minds are graven the traditions, mythology, and folklore as indelibly as are the pictographs and monochromes upon the rocky walls.

An aged theurgist whose lore was unquestioned, in fact he was regarded as their oracle (PI. v), passed away during the summer of 1890. Great were the lamentations that the keeper of their traditions slept, and with him slept much that they would never hear again. There are, now, but five men from whom any connected account of their cosmogony and mythology may be gleaned, and they are no longer young. Two of these men are not natives of Sia, but were adopted into the tribe when young children. One is a Tusayan; the other a San Felipe Indian. The former is the present governor, amiable, brave, and determined, and while deploring that his people have no understanding of American civilization, he stands second only to the oracle in his knowledge of lore of the Sia. The San Felipe Indian is a like character, and if Sia possessed a few more such men there might yet be a future for that pueblo.

While the mythology and cult practices differ in each pueblo there is still a striking analogy between them, the Zuni and Tusayan furnishing the richer field for the ethnographer, their religion and sociology being virtually free from Catholic influence.

The Indian official is possessed of a character so penetrating, so diplomatic, cunning, and reticent that it is only through the most friendly relations and by a protracted stay that anything can be learned of the myths, legends, and rites with which the lives of these people are so thoroughly imbued and which they so zealously guard.

16 THE 8U.

The theurgists of the several cult societies, upon learning that the object of the writer's second visit to Sia was similar to that of the previous one, graciously received her in their ceremonials, revealing the secrets more precious to thenl than life itself. When unable to give such information as she sought they would bring forth their oracle (the aged theurgist) whose old wrinkled face brightened with intelligent interest as he related without hesitancy that which was requested.

The form of government of all the pueblos is much the same, they being civil organizations divided into several departments, with an official head for each department.

With the Sia (and likewise with the other pueblos) the ti'amoni, by virtue of his priestly office, is ex officio chief executive and legislator; the war priest (he and his vicar being the earthly representatives of the twin war heroes) having immediate control and direction of the military and of tribal hunts. Secret cult societies concerning the Indians' relations to anthropomorphic and zoomorphic beings are controlled each by a particular theurgist. The war chief, the local governor, and the magistrate as well as the ti'amoni and theurgists have each a vicar who assists in the official and religious duties.

While the Zuui priesthood for rain consists of a plurality of priests and a priestess, the priest of the north being the arch ruler, the Sia have but one such priest. With the Zufii the archruler holds his office through maternal inheritance; with the Sia it is a life appointment. The ti'amoni of Sia is chosen alternately from three clans — com, coyote, and a species of cane. Though the first priest was selected by the mother t^t'sSt, who directed that the office should always be filled by a member of the corn clan, he in time caused dissatisfaction by his action towards infants (see cosmogony), and upon his death the people concluded to choose a ti'amoni from the coyote clan, but he proved not to have a good heart, for the cloud people refused to send rain and the earth became dry. The third one was appointed from the cane clan, but he, too, causing criticism, the Sia determined they would be obedient to the command of their mother Ct's^t, and returned to the corn clan in selecting their fourth ti'amoni, but his reign brought disapi>ointment. The next ruler was chosen from the coyote clan, and proved more satisfactory; but the people, deciding it was best not to confine the selection of their ti'amoni to the one clan, appointed the sixth from the cane clan, and since that time this office has been filled alternately from the corn, coyote, and cane clans until the latter became extinct. The present ti'amoni^s clan is the coyote, and that of his vicar, the com. Their future appointments will necessarily come from these two clans, as practically they are reduced to these.

The ti'amoni and vicar are appointed by the two war priests, the vicar succeeding to the office of ti'amoni.

The present ti'amoni entered his office without having filled the subordinate place, his pfedecessor, a very aged man, and the vicar, like-

THE ORACLE.

CTEVBNBOH.l THE TIAMONI. 17

wise old, Uaviug died about the same tiuie. When the nelectioti of a younger brother or vicar has been lUiide, the vicar to the war priest calls uiK)n the incoming ruler, who accompanies him to the house of the appointee to fill the office of vicar to the ti'amoni. The younger war priest, followed by the ti'amoni elect, who precedes Ihe vicar, goes to the ancestral official chamber of the ti'amoni, 3vhere the elder war priest the theurgists of the several cult sot^ieties, with their vicars, have assembled to be present at the installation of the ti'amoni. The war priest arises to meet the party, and, with the ti'amoni immediately before him he says: ** This man is now our priest; he is now our father anu our mother for all time;^' and then addressing the ti'iimoni he contil ues: "You are no more to work in the fields or to bring wootl, the theurgists of the cult and all your other children will labor for you, our ti'amoni, for all years to come; you are not to work, but to be to us lus our father and our mother.'' *' Good ! good ! " is repeated by the theurgists. The war priest then presents the ti'amoni with the ensign of his office — a slender staff, crooked at the end and supposed to be the same which was presented to the first ruler by the mother Ct'set — the crook being symbolic of longevity. Upon receiving the crook the ti'amoni draws the sacred brciith from it and the war priest embraces him and sprinkles the cane with meal with a prayer that the thoughts and heart of C'ts^t may be conveyed from the staff' to the newly-chosen ruler (Ct'sCt ui>on presenting this cane to the first ti'amoni of this world, gave with it all her thoughts and her heart), and now he, too, draws from the cane the sacred breath. The theurgists rise in a body, each one embracing the ti'amoni and sprinkling meal upon the staff, at the same time drawing from it the sacred breath. The civil authorities lujxt, and then the populace, including tlie women and children, repeat the embracing, the sprinkling of meal, and the drawing of the sacred breath.

The following day all the members of the pueblo, including the children, collect wood for the ti'amoni, depositing it by the side of his dwelling.

The Sia are much chagrined that their present ti'amoni (who is a young man) participates in the hunts, works in the fields, and is ever ready to join in a pleasure ride over the hills. This is not the tribal custom; the ti'amoni may have a supervision over his herds and fields, but his mind is supposed to be absorbed with religion and the interests of his peo^de, and he never leaves his village for a distance, excepting to make pilgrimages to the shrines or other of their Meccas. This young ruler is a vain fellow, having but little concern for the welfare of his people, but he is most punctilious in his claim to the honors due him.

The theurgists hold office for life, each vicar succeeding to the function of his theurgist, who in turn appoints, with the approbation of the ti'amoni, the member whom he thinks best fitted to fill the position of vicar.

For the selecticm of the civil and subordinate military officers the

11 ETH 2

18 THE RIA.

ti'iimoiii meetK with tiiH viuar, awl the war priest and vicar iu the offlciiil chamber of the ti'iimoiii, in the nioiitli of December, tu discuss the several appointiuetitH to l>e matle; that uf war chief and his assistant, the governor and lieuteuautrgoverrior, the magistrate and his depnty. After t)ie names have been diwided upon the theurgists of the secret cult societies are notified and they join the ti'anioni and his associates, when thej are iuformed of the decision and their coucurreuce requested.

Fia. ».— Piiiiper.

This is always given, the consnltatioii with Che thuurgists being buta matter of courtesy. The populace then attsembte, when iiiinouncement is mtide of the uanies of the new appointees. These appointments are annual; the same party, however, may serve any uumber of terms.

The war chief performs minor duties which would otherwise fall to the war priest. It is the duty of the war chief to patrol the, town during the meetings of the cnlt societies aud to sarronnd the village

irrevBHiioN.l THE CLANS. 19

with niounted guardsmen at the time of a dauce of the Ka'-^sn-na. A Mexicau, especially, must uot look upon one of these anthropomorphic beings. The war chief also directs the hunt under the instruction of the war priest and vicar. It is not obligatory that be participate in the hunt; his vicar, as his representative or other self, may lead the huntsmen. The governor sees that the civil laws are executed, he looking after the more important matters, leaving the minor cases in the hands of the magistrate. He designates the duties of bis people for the coming day by crying his commands in the plaza at sunset.

Wizards and witches are tried and punished by the war priest; and it has been but a few years since a man and his wife suffered death for practicing this diabolical craft. Their child, a boy of some twelve years, Fig. 3, is a pauper who at times begs from door to door, and at other times he is takeu into some family and made use of until they grow tired of dispensing their charity. The observations of the writer led, her to believe that the boy earned all that he received. Socially, held in eontempt by his elders, he seems a favorite with the children, though this unfortunate is seldom allowed the joy of childish sport. He is, how-, ever, a member of one of the most important cult societies (the knife) belonging to its several divisions.

The clans (hdnotc) now existing among these people are the

YiUka Com H^mi Tobacco

Shart-8-An-nn Coyote

T^fie Squash

Ko-hai Bear

Ti-a'-mi Eagle

There is but one member of the eagle, one of the bear, and one of the squash clan, and these men are advanced in years. There is a second member of the squash clan, but he is a Tusayan by birth. The only clans that are numerically well represented are the corn and coyote. There is but one family of the tobacco clan.

The following are extin(;t clans:

8hi-ke Star Ha'-pan-fii Oak

1^ a-wac Moon ! Ha'-kan-fii Fire

O^-sharts Sun | Sha'- wi-ti Parrot

Ta'fie Deer | Wa'pon White shell bead

Kurtz Antelope i *'Zi-i Ant

Mo'-kaitc Cougar

Hdn^-na-ti Cloud

Shn'ta Crane

Ya'un-fti Granite

Waah'-pa Cactus

The writer could not learn that there had ever been more than twentyone clans, and although the table shows six at the present time, it may be seen from the statement that there are virtually but two.

Marrying into the clan of either parent is in opposition to the old law; but at present there is nothing for the Sia to do but to break these laws, if they would preserve the remnant of their people, and while such marriages are lo(jked upon with disfavor, it is "the inevitable.^ The young men are watched with a jealous eye by their elders that they do not seek brides among other tribes, and though the beauty

20 THE 8IA.

of the Sia niaideus is recognized by the other pueblo people, they are rarely sought in marriage, for, according to the tribal custom, the husband makes his home with the wife; and there is little to attract the more progressive Indian of the other pueblos to Sia, where the eagerness to perpetuate a depleted race causes the Sia to rejoice over every birth, especially if it be a female child, regardless whether the child be legitimate or otherwise.

When a girl reaches puberty she informs her mother, who invites the female members of her clan to her house, where an informal feast is enjoyed. The guests congratulate the girl upon having arrived at the state of womanhood, and they say to her, <^ As yet you are like a child, but you will soon be united with a companion and you will help to increase your people." The only male present is the girl's fiather. The news, however, soon spreads through the village, and it is not long before offers are made to the mother for the privilege of sexual relations with the girl. The first offers are generally refused, the mother holding her virgin daughter for the highest bidder. These are not neces- sarily offers of marriage, but are more commonly otherwise, and are frequently made by married men.

Though the Sia are monogamists, it is common for the married, as well as the unmarried, to live«promiscuously with one another; the husband being as fond of his wife's children as if he were sure of the pa- ternal parentage. That these people, however, have their share of latent jealously is evident from the secrecy observed on the part of a married man or woman to prevent the anger of the sx)ouse. Parents are quite as fond of their daughters' illegitimate offspring, and as proud of them as if they had been bom in wedlock; and the man who marries a woman having one or more illegitimate children apparently feels the same attachment for these children as for those his wife bears him.

Some of the women recount their relations of this character with as much pride as a civilized belle would her honest offers of marriage. One ot the most attractive women in Sia, though now a grandmother, once said to the writer:

When I WR8 youDg I was pretty and attractive, and when I reached womanhood many ofifers were made to my mother for me [she did not refer to marriage, however], but my mother knowing my attractions refused several, and the first man I lived with was the richest man in the pueblo. I only lived with three men before I married, one being the present governor of the village; my eldest child is his daughter, and he thinks a great deal of her. He often makes her presimts, and she always addresses hini as father when his wife is not by. His wife, whom he married sometime after I ceased my relations with him, does not know that her husband once lived with me.

This woman added as an evidence of her great devotion to her husband, that since her marriage she had not lived with any other man.

These loose marriage customs doubtless arise from the fact that the Sia are now numerically few and their increase is desired, and that, as

1 PttEPASINO TO BUILD. 21

many of the clans are dow extinct, it is impossible to intermarry in obedience to ancient role.

The Sia are no exception to all the North A.nierican aborigines with whom tbe writer is acquainted, the man being the active party in matrimonial aspirations. If a woman has not before been married, and is yonng, the man speaks to her parents before breathing u word of bis admiration to the girl. If bis desire meets with approbation, tbe following day he makes known to the girl bis wish for her. The girl nsnally answers in tbe affirmative if it be tbe will of her parents. Some two months are consumed in the preparations for the wedding. Moccasins, blankets, a dress, a belt, and other parts of the wardrobe are prepared by the groom and the clans of his paternal and maternal parents. The dans of the father and mother of the girl make great preparations for

the feast, which occurs after the marriage. The groom goes alone to thehonse of the girl, bis parents having preceded him, and carries his giftfi wrapped in a blanket. Tbe girl's mother sits to her right, and to the right of this parent the groom's mother sits; there is space for the groom on the left of the girl, and beyond, the groom's fother sits, and next to him the girl's father. When the groom enters the room tbe girl advances to meet him and receives the bundle; her mother then comes forward and taking it deposits it in some part of the same room, when the girl retamt* to her seat and the groom sits beside ber, Tlie girl's father is the first to speak, and says to tbe couple, "You must now be as one, your hearts must be as one heart, yon must speak no bad words, and one must live for tbe other; and remember, your two hearts most now be as one heart." Tlie groom's father then repeats

about the same, then tlie girr« motlier, imd the mother of the groom speak in turn. After the marriage, which ib Btrivtiy private, all the invited gueBts assemble and enjoy a feast, the elaborateuess of the feast depending upon the vealCh aiid prominence of the family.

Tribal custom requires the groi)m to make his home with his wife's family, the couple sleeping in the general living room with the remainder of the family; but with the more progressive puebloB, and with the Sia to a limited extent, the husband, if he be able, after a time provides a house for his family. '

The Sia wear the conventional dress of the Pueblos in general. The womeu have their hair banged across the eyebrows, aud the side locks

IgiUR tl«.¥.

cut even midway the cheek. The battk of the hair is left long and tlnne up in a cue, though some of the yoimger women, at the present time, have adopted the Afexicau way of dividing their hair down the back and crossing it 1n a loop at the neck and wrapping it with yarn. The men cut tbeir hair the same way across the eyebrows, their side locka being brought to the center of the chiu and cat, and the back hair done up similar to the manner of the women.

The children are industrious and patient little creatures, the boys assisting their elders in farming and pastoral pursuits, and the girls performing their share of domestic duties, A marked trait is their loving-kindness and care for younger brothers and sisters. Every little

vrtvtMfw.i BflLDINO. 23

^r1 has her own water vaso iih soon tin Hhi> is old eDough h> acromjiiiny her mother to the river in the capacity of asHistaut water-carrier, ami tlm« they begin at a very early age to jmise the vase. Kf;yptinn fusliion, on their heatlH.

There is no employment in pncblo life that the wompn and children seem so tboroaghly to enjoy as the proceHf<6s of lionse building. (Fig. 5.) It is the woman'R prerogativf to do most of thin work. (Fig. «.) Met) make the adobe bricks when thene are to be uxed. In 8ia the boiiseH areadol)eand small bowlders which nifgathertnl from the niins among which they live. It is ODiyoccusioiiallythiitanew honse is (sonstniet*^. Tbe older ones are remodeled, and these are always smoothly plastered

Eiria hriDElDE rlRr.

on the exterior and interior, xo that there is no evidence of a stone wall. (PI. VI.) The men do idl carpent^'r work, and the 8ia are remarkably clever in this branch of mechaniNni, ctiiiHidering their crndc implements and entire absence of ton-ign instruction. They also lay the heavy beams, and they sometimes assist in other work of the building. When it became known that the writer wished to have the earth hardened under and in front of her tenLs the entire female |Mipulat)on ap|)eare4l at the camp ready for work, and for n couple of ditys the winds waited over the plain the merry chatter and Inughtei' of young and old. The process of laying the tent di>or.s was the same as the Sia observe in making floors in their houses. A hoe is employetl to break the

24 THE StA.

earth to about eight inclies in depth nnd to looaen all rocks that may be found (Fig. 4). The rockn are theu removed and the foreign earth, a kind of clay, is brought by the girls ou their backs in blankets or the square pieties of calico whieli haug from their Bhoulders (Figs. 5 and 6) and deposited over the ground which has been worked (Fig. 7). The hoe is again emjiloyed to combine the clay with the freshly brokeu earth (Fig. 8); this done, the spa<-e is brushed over with brush brooms and sprinkled (Fig, 9) until the earth is thoroughly saturated for several inches deep. Great care is observed in leveling the floor (Fig. 10), and extra quantities of clay must be added here and there. Then begins the stamping process (Fig. 11). When the floor is as smooth

5. 1 —nsponlHi

as it can be made by .stamping (PI. Tii), the pounders go to work, each one with a stone flat on one side and smooth as a polishing stone. (PI. VIII.) Many such specimens have been obtained from the ruins in the southwest. When this work is completed the floor is allowed to partially dry, when plaster made of the same clay (Fig. 12), wbivh has been long anil carefully worked, is spread over the floor with the hand, and when di)ne the whole looks as smooth as a cement floor, but it is uot so durable, sucli floors requiring freqaent renovation. The floor may be improved, however, by a coating of beef's or goat's blood, and tills process is usually adopt«d in the houses ( Fig. 13), little ones watching their elders at work inside the t^'iit.

nUILDINO.

Two men only are possessors of herdtt of sheep, bnt a few cattle are owned individaally by many of the Sia.

The cattle are not herded collectively, but by ^iwh individual owner. Sometimes the boys of different fantihcs go together to henl their stock, but it receives no altciition whatever from the otBeials of the village W) long as it is anmolcKted by strangera.

The Sia own about IJiO horses, liut wldom or never use them as lieasts of burden. They are kept in pasture during the week, and everj' Saturday the w»r chief designates the six honses wliich are to fiirniah herders for the round-up. Should the head of the bouse have a son sufficiently large the sou may be sent in his place. Only such

houses are selected aa own horses. The henlKmen start out Satunlay morning; their return deiiends upon their success in rounding up the animals, but tliey usually get back Sunday morning.

Ui>oii discovering the approach of the herdsmen and horses many of the women and children, t'>o impatient to await the gathering of tliem in the corral, liasten to the valley u» join the cavalciido, and ni>oi\ reiiching the party they at once scramble for the woml rats {Keotoma) which hang from the necks of tlie horses and colts. The men of the village ■ are also much excited, but they may not particijiate in tlie fntlic. From the time the herders leave the village until their return they are on the lookout for the yeoUnna, which must In- very abundant judging from

26 THE Htk.

the nnralier gathered on these trigM. The rats are Riispended by a yacca ribbon tied around the nenks of the aniniaht. The excitement increases as the horses ascend the hill; and after enteriog the corral it reaches the highest point, and the women and children run aboat among the hnraes, entirely devoid of any fear of the excited aiiimaK in their effort* to snatrh the rats from their necks. Many are the narrow escapes, but one is seldom hurt. The women throw the hiriat, some of them being quite expert, and drawing the hnrsea near them, imll the rats from their necks. Numbers fail, but there are always the favored few who

• leave the corral in triumph with as many rats as their two hands can carry. The rats are skinned nnd <-ix>ked in grease and eaten as a great delicacy.

9 WoniffliaiirlnkllDg Ibeearih.

COSMOOONY.

The Sia have an elaborate cosmogony, highly colored with the heroic deeds of mythical beings. That which the writer here presents is simply the nucleus of their belief fi-om which spring stories in infinite numbers, in which every phenomenon of nature known to these \K>op\e is accounted for. Whole chapters »!Oiild be devoted to the experiences of each mythical being mentioned in the cosmogony.

In the beginning there was but ouebeing in the lower world, Stts'slatinriako, a sirtder. At that time there were no other animals, birds,

COSMO(>ONY.

reptiles, or any living creatiiw but tUe spider. He drew a line of" meal from nortli to south and 4;ronBed it midway from ea«t tu went; and be placed two little parceln nortli of the cross line, one ou either aide of the line running north and south. Tfaetw parcels were very valuable and precious, but the [>eople do not know to this day of what they consisted; no one ever knew but the creator, Sfls'slatinnako. After plac- ing the ])arcels in position, Sus'slstinuako xat down on the west side of the line running north and south, and .south of the cross line, and hegan to sin;;, and in a little while the two parcels accompanied liim in the song by shaking, like rattles. The music was low and sweet, and after awhile two women appeared, one evolved from each parcel; and

in a short time people lyegan walkiug iibout; then animals, birds, and all animate objects api>eared, and Sfls'slntinnako continued to sing until his creation was complete, when he was very happy and contented. There were many people and they kept close, together, and did not pass about much, for fear of stepping upon one another; there was no light and they conld not see. The two womeu first created were tbe mothers of all; the one created on tlie ea.st aide of the lino of meal, SQs'slstinnako named trt'sf't, and nhe van the mother of all Indians; he called the other Now'fitset, she being the mother of other nations. SCis'sIstinnako divided the people into 4!lans, saying to certain of the people: "Yon are of the corn clau, and you are the first of all;" and

28 THE BIA.

to otliers he said: "You beloun to the coyote, the bear, tlie eagle ]>eop1e," and no on.

After SfiH'Histinnako had nearly perfected his creation for Ha'arts (the earth), lie thought it would be well to have rain to water the earth, and ho he created the cloud, lightning, thunder, and rainbow peoples to work for the people of Ila'arts. This second creation was separated into six divisioDH, one of which was sent to each of the cardinal jmiiitH and to the zenith and nadir, each division making its home in a spring in the heart of a great mountain, upon whose summit waa a giant tree. The Sha'ka-ka (spruce) was on the mountain of the north; the Shwi'-ti-ra-wa-na (pine) on the mountain of the west; the

I. H.—siuupun starting

Mai'-chi-nu (oak) — (^ercim uH(fuIata,variety Oambelii — on the mountain of the south; the Shwi'-si-nj-ha'-na-we (aspen) on the mountain of the east; the Harsh 'ti-tii- mo (cedar) on the mountain of the zenith, and the Mor'-ri-tii^o (oak), variety pungens, on the mountain of the nadir. While <>aJ'1i division liiid its home in a spring, S&s'slstinnaku gave to these peo])l(' Ti'-ni-a, the middle plain of the world (the world was divide<l into three parts: Ha'arts, the earth; Ti'nia, the middle plain, and Hu'-wa-kn, the upper plain), not only for a working field for the benefit of the i>eopIe of Ila'arts, but also for their pleasure ground.

Not wishing this second creation to t>e seen by the people of Ila'arts 118 they passed nlwrnt over Ti'niii, lie conimandetl the Sia to smoke, that

COSMOGONY.

clonds niigbt ascend aiid servu an uiattkH tu protect the people of Ti'uia from view of the inhabitants of Ha'artB.

The people of Ha'arts made hoiiRes for themselvea by diggiog holes in rocks and tbe earth. They could uot build bouues aa they now do, because they could uot see. In a short time the two mothers, t)t8fit and Now'flts$t (the latter being the elder and larger, but the former having the beet mind and heart), who resided in the north, went into the chita (estufa) and talked much to one another, and tbey decided that they would make light, and stiUI : " Now we will make light, that our people may see; we can not now tell the peojile, biit to-morrow will be a good day and day after to-morrow will altio be a good day " — meaning

that their thoughts were good, and they s{>oke with one tongue, and that their future would bo bright, and they added: "Now all is covered vitb darkness, but after uwhile we will have light." These two women, being inspired by SQs'sIstinnako, created the sun from white shell, turkis, red stone, and abalone shell. After making the sun they carried him to the east and there made a eiunp, a-s there were no houses. The next morning they ascended a high monutain and droptH'd the sun down behind it, and after a time he began to ascend, and when the people saw tbe light their hearts rejoiced. When far off his fat^e was blue ; as he came nearer the fa^se grew brighter. They, however, did not see the snu himself, but a mask ao large that it covered hiij entire bodv.

30 THE 8IA.

The people aaw that the world van lurge aud the cMuiitry tiuiiiitiful, and when tlie wotneu returned to the village they said to the people: " We are the mothers of all."

Though the huh lighted the world in the day, he gave no light at night, as be returned to his home in the vest; and so the two motherH created the moon from a slightly black stone, many varieties of a yellow stone, turkis, and a red stone, that the world might be iightetl at night, and that the inoou might be a companion and a brother to the sun; but the moon traveled slowly, and did not always furnish light-, and so they created the star people and made their eyes of beautiful sparkling white crystal, that they might twinkle and brighten the world at night. When the star people lived in the lower world they were gathered into groups, which were very beautiful ; they were not scatno. 13.— Uhlldiab curlcMttj.

tered about as they are in the upper world. Again the two women entered the chita and decided to mnke tour houseu — one in tlie north, one in the west, one in tlie south, and one in the east — house in this instan<;e meaning pueblo or village. When these houses were completed they sai<l, now we have some beautiful houses; we will go first to that of the north and talk much for h11 things good. Mow' fits£t said to her sister: "I^et us make other good things,"aud the sister asked: "What thingH do you wimIi to uiakef She answered: " We are the mothers of all peoples, and we must do good work." " Well," replied the younger sister, "tomorrow 1 will pass around and see my other honses, and you will remain here."

After Ot'«#t had travelwl over the world, visiting the houses of the west, south, and east, she returned to her home in the north and was graciously receiver! by Now'utefit. who seemed happy to see her younger

erravKmoN.) THE CREATION. 31

sister, and after a warm greeting she invited her to be seated. Now'fits^t had a picture which she did not wish the sisters to see, and she covered it with a blanket, and said, " Guess what I have here t " (pointing to the covered picture) " and when you guess correctly I will show you." " 1 do not know," said tJt'sft and again the elder one asked, "What do you think I have heret" and the other replied, "I do not know." A third time Ct's^t was asked, and replied that she did not know, adding, " 1 wish to speak straight, and I must therefore tell you I do not know what you have there." Then Now'ftts^t said, " That is right." After a while the younger sister said, " I think you have under that blanket a picture, to which you vnll talk when you are alone." " You are right," said the elder sister, "you have a good head to know things." Now'uts^t, however, was much displeased at the wisdom displayed by Ot'sfit. She showed the picture to tJt'^t and in a little while trt'sCtleft, saying, "I will now return to my house and no longer travel; to-morrow you will come to see me."

After the return of tTt'sft to her home she beckoned to the Chas'ka (chaparral cock) to come to her, and said, " You may go early tomorn)w morning to the house of the sun in the east, and then follow the road from there to his home in the west, aad when you reach the house in the west remain there UTitil my sister comes to my house to talk to^me, when I will call you. " In the early morning the elder sister called at the house of the younger. "Sit down, my sister," said the younger one, and after a little time she said, " Let us go out and walk about; I saw a beautiful bird pass by, but I do not know where he lives," and she pointed to the footprints of the bird upon the ground, which was soft, and the tmcks were very plain, and it could be seen that the footprints were in a straight line from the house of the sun in the east to his house in the west. " I (iau not tell," said the younger sister, "perhaps the bird came from the house in the east and has gone to the house in the west; perhaps he came from the house in the west and has gone to the house in the east; as the feet of the bird i>oint both ways, it is hard to tell. What do you think, sister?" "I can not say," replied the other. Four times Ot'sCt asked the question and received the same reply. The fourth time the elder sister added, "How can I telll I do not know which is the front of the foot and which is the heel, but I think the bird has gone to the house in the east." " Your thoughts are wrong," replied the younger sister; "I know where the bird is, and he will soon be here;" and she gave a call and in a little while the Chas'ka came running to her from the west.

The elder sister was mortified at her lack of knowledge, and said, "Come to my house to-morrow; to-day you are greater than I. I thought the bird had gone to the house in the east, but you knew where he was, and he came at your call; to-morrow you come to me."

On the morrow the younger sister called at the house of the elder and was asked to be seated. Then Now'fttsCt said, " Sister, a word

with you; what do you think that is I" iioiutiug to a figure euveloi)ed in a blanket, with only the feet showing, which were crossed. Four times the question was asked, and each time the younger sister said she could not tell, but finally she added, ^^ I think the fleet are crossed; the one on the right should be left and the left should be right." "To whom do the feet belong!" inquired the elder sister. The younger sister was prompted by her grandmother, Si^s'sYstinnako', the spider woman, to say, " I do not think it is either man or woman," referring to l>eings created by Sfis'sTstiiinako, "but something you have made." The elder sister replied, " You are right, my sister." She threw the blanket off, exposing a human figure; the younger sister then left, asking the elder to call at her house on the morrow, and all night Ct'set was busy preparing an altar under the direction, however, of Sus'sistlnenako. She covered the altar with a blanket, and in the morning when the elder sister called they sat together for a while and talked; then Ot's^t said, pointing to the covered altar, "What do you think I have there?" No'v'uts^t replied, "I can not tell; I may have my thoughts about it, but I do not know." Four times Now'fttsfit was asked, and each time she gave the same reply. Then the younger sister threw off the blanket, and they both looked at the altar, but neither spoke a word.

When the elder sister left, she said to Ct's^t, "To-mon-ow you come to my house," and all night she was busy arranging things for the morning, and in the morning CTt'sCt hastened to her sister's house. (She was accompanied by SCis'sTstinnako, who followed invisible close to her ear.) Now'ittsft asked, " What have I there?" iK)inting to a covered object, and trt'sCt replied, " I can not tell, but I have thought that you have under that blanket all things that are necessary for all time to come; perhaps I speak wrong." "No," replied Now'fttst^t," you speak correctly," and she threw off the blanket, saying, "My sister, I maybe the larger and the first, but your head and heart are wise; you know much; I think my head must be weak." The younger sister then said: " To-morrow you come to my house;" and in the morning when the elder sister called at the house of the younger she was received in the front room and asked to be seated, and they talked awhile; then the younger one said: " What do you think I have in the room there?" i>ointing to the door of an inner room. Four times the question was asked and each time Now'fitsCt replied, "I can not tell." "Come with me," said Crt'set, and she cried as she threw open the door, "All this is mine, when you have looked well we will go away." The room was filled with the Ka'^suna beings with monster, heads which Ot'sSt had created, under the direction of SCis'slstinnako.

Siis'slstinnako's creation may be classed in three divisions:

1. Pai'-a-tii-mo : All men of lla'arts (the earth), the sun, moon, stars,

Ko'-shai-ri and Quer'-ran-na.

■ Sfis'Alstinnako is reft^rred t<> Imtli an father ami mother, he being the parent of all, and sometimes as grandmother or the first parent.

OTKVEifBON.l THE FIRST MAN. 33

2. Ko'-pXsh-tai-a: The cloud, lightDing, thunder, rainbow peoples, and

all animal life not included under the first and third heads.

3. Ka'-^BU-na: Beings having human bodies and monster heads, who

are personated in Sia by men and women wearing masks.

After a time the younger sister closed the door and they returned to the front room, l^ot a word had been spoken except by the younger. As the elder sister left she said, " To-morrow you come to my house." Sus'slstinnako whi8i)ered in the ear of the younger, " To-morrow you will see fine things in your sister's house, but they will not be good; they will be bad." Now'ftts^t then said: "Before the Sun has left his home we will go together to see him ; we will each have a wand on our heads made of the long white flutfy feathers of the under tail of the eagle, and we will place them vertically on our heads that they may see the sun when he first comes out ;" and the younger sister replied: "You are the elder and must go before, and your plumes will see the sun first; mine can not see him until he has traveled far, because I am so small; you are the greater and must go before." Though she said this she knew better; she knew that though she was smaller in stature she was the greater and more important woman. That night Sfis'sTstinnako talked much to t^t'set. She said : " Now that you have created the Ka'*8una you must create a man as messenger between the sun and the Ka'^suna and another as messenger between the moon and the Ka'*suna.

The first man created was called Ko'shairi; he not only acts as courier between the sun and the Ka'^suna, but he is the companion, the jester and musician (the flute b^ing his instrument) of the sun; he is also mediator between the people of the earth and the sun ; when acting as courier between the sun and the Ka'^suna and vice versa and as mediator between the people of the earth and the sun he is chief for the sun; when accompanying the sun in his daily travels he furnishes him with music and amusement ; he is then the servant of the sun. The second man created was Quer'riinna, his duties being identical with those of the Ko'shairi, excepting that the moon is his particular chief instead of the sun, both, however, being subordinate to the sun.

After the creation of Ko'shairi and Quer'ranna, Ot's^t called Shuah-kai (a small black bird with white wings) to her and said:

"To-morrow my sister and I go to see the sun when he first leaves his house. We will have wands on our heads, we will be side by side; she is much taller than I; the sun will see her face before he sees mine, and that will not be good; you must go to-morrow morning very early near the house of the sun and take a plume from your left wing, but none from your right; spread your wings and rest in front of the sun as he comes from his house." The two women started very early In the morning to greet the rising sun. They were accompanied by all

11 ETH -3

34 THE &IA.

the men and youths, carrying their bows and arrows. The elder woman, after they halted to await the coming of the sun, said: ''We are here to watch for the sun." (The people had divided, some being on the side of Now'uts^t, the others with tT t's^t). " If the sun looks first upon me, all the people on my side will be my people and will slay the others, and if the sun looks first ui)on the face of my sister all the i)eople on her side will be her i)eople and they will destroy my people."

As the sun left his house, the bird Shu'ahkai placed himself so as to obscure the light, excepting where it penetrated through the space left by the plucking of the feather from his wing, and the light shone, not only on the wand on the head of the younger sister, but it covered her face, while it barely touched the top of the plumes of the elder; and so the peoi)le of the younger sister destroyed those of the elder. The two women stood still while the men fought. The women remained on the mountain top, but the men descended into a grassy park to fight. After a time the younger sister ran to the park and cried, " This is enough ; fight no more." She then returned to the mountain and said to her sister, " L<»t us descend to the x>^i*k and fight." And they fought like women — not with arrows — but wrestled. The men formed a circle around them and the women fought hard and long. Some of the men said, ' Let us go and part the women; " others said, ' No ; let them alone." The younger woman grew very tired in her arms, and cried to her i)eople, "I am very tired," and they threw the elder sister upon the ground and tied her hands; the younger woman then commanded her people to leave her, and she struck her sister with her fists about the head and face as she lay upon the ground, and in a little while killed her. She then cut the breast with a stone knife and took out the heart, her people being still in a circle, but the circle was so large that they were some distance off. She held the heart in her hand and cried : " Listen, men and youths ! This woman was my sister, but she compelled us to fight; it was she who taught you to fight. The few of her people who escaped are in the mountains and they are the people of the rats;" and she cut the heart into pieces and threw it upon the ground, saying, " Her heart will become rats, for it was very bad," and immediately rats could be seen running in all directions. She found the center of the heart full of cactus, and she said, "The rats for evermore will live with the cacti ;" and to this day the rats thus live (referring to the Keotoma). She then told her people to return to their homes.

It was about this time that Sus'slstinnako organized the cult societies, instructing all of the societies in the songs for rain, but imparting only to certain ones the secrets whereby disease is extracted through the suckine: and brushing processes.

For eight years after the fight (years referring to perioils of timeN the I)eople were very happy and all things flourished, but the ninth year was very bad, the whole earth being filled with water. The water did

BTBVEHsoH.) THE FIRST MAN. 35

not fall in rain, but came in as rivers between the mesas, and continued flowing from all sides until the people and all animals fled to the mesa. The waters continued to rise until nearly level with the mesa top, and SCis'sIstinnako cried, "Where shall my people go? Where is the road to the north, he looking to the north, the road to the west, he facing the west, the road to the south, he turning south, the road to the east, he fticing east! Alas, I see the waters are everywhere.'' And all of his theurgists sang four days and nights before their altars and made many offerings, but still the waters continued to rise as before. Sfis'ststinnako said to the sun: "My son, you will (y$cend and pass over the world above; your course will be from the north to the south, and you will return and tell me what you think of it." On his return the sun said, "Mother, I did as you bade me, and I did not like the road." Again he told him to ascend and pass over the world from the west to the east, and on his return Si^s'ststinnako inquired how he liked that road. "It may be good for some, mother, but I did not like it." "You will again ascend and pass over the straight road from east to west," and upon the sun's return the father inquire<l what bethought of that road. His reply was, "I am much contented; I like the road much." Then Siis'slstinnako said, "My son, you will ascend eaxih day and pass over the world from east to west." Upon each day's journey the sun stops midway from the east to the center of the world to eat his breakfast, in the center to eat his dinner, and midway the center to the west to eat his supper, he never failing to take his three meals daily, stopping at these particular points to obtain them.

The sun wears a shirt of dressed deerskin, and leggings of the same, reaching to his thighs; the shirt and leggings are fringed; his moccasins are also of deerskin and embroidered in yellow, red, and turkis beads; he wears a kilt of deerskin, the kilt having a snake painted upon it; he carries a bow and arrows, the quiver being of cougar skin, hanging over his shoulder, and he holds his bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right; he still wears the mask which protects him from view of the people of the earth. An eagle plume with a i)arrot plume on either side, ornaments the top of the mask, and an eagle plume is on either side of the mask and one is at the bottom; the hair around the head and face is red like Are, and when it moves and shakes the people can not look closely at the mask; it is not intended that they should observe closely and thereby know that instead of seeing the sun they see only his mask; the heavy line encircling the mask is yellow, and indicates rain. (Fig. 14.)

The moon came to the upper world with the sun and he also wears a mask.

Each night the sun passes by the house of Sils'slstinnako, who asks him: "How are my children above, how many have died to-day, and how many have been born today!" He lingers with him only long enough to answer his questions. He then passes on to his house in the east.

36 THE 6IA.

S&H'HiHtiiuiako placed a huge rued u|Mjn tbe mesa top and said: "My people will pans ap tlirougli this to tlie world above." Ct'sft led the way, (^rryiug a Haek eontaJuiug many of the star people; she was folluved by all the theurgiiit8, who curried their precious articles in Bacred blanket^, ou tbeir backs; then followed the laity and all anioials, Kiiakes and binlK; the turkey was far behind, aud the fuam of the waterit rose and reached the tip eiiils of his feathers, and to tJiiB day

UHk or tbe SnD. dnirn by ■ theurelit.

they bear tlie mark of the waters. Upon reachiug the top of the reed, the solid earth barred their exit, and Ot'set called 'Si'ka (the locust), Siiyinc, " Man, come here." The locust hastened to her, and she told him that the earth prevented their exodus. "You know best how to pii8« lhrou(;h the earth; go and make a door for us." "Very well, mother," he re|>hed, *' I will, and I think I can make a way." He begau workiug with his feet, and alter a time he passed through the

li^

STEVENSON.) THE STARS ALSO. 3t

earth, entering another world. As soon as he saw the world, he returned to Ct'set saying, ^'It is good above." tTt'sCt then called the Tuo' pi (badger), and said to him, "Make a door for us; the ^Si'ka has made one, but it is very small." "Very well, mother; I will," replied the badger; and after much work he passed into the world above, and returning said, "Mother, I have opened the way." Ct'set is appealed to, to the present time, as father and mother, for she acts directly for Siis'sTstinuako, the creator. The badger said, "Mother, father, the world above is good." tTt'set then called the deer, saying to him, "You go first, and if you pass through all right, if you can get your head through, others may pass." The deer after ascending returned saying, "Father, it is all right; I passed without trouble." She then called the elk, and told him if he could get his head through the door, all could pass. He returned, saying, " Father, it is good; I passed without trouble." She then had the butt'alo try and he returned, saying, "Father, mother, the door is good; I passed without trouble."

tyt'set then called the 1 shits (Searahfeuft) and gave him the sack of stars, telling him to pass out first with the sack. The little animal did not know what the sack contained, but he grew very tired carrying it, and he wondered what ccmld be in the sack. After entering the new world he was very tired, and laying the sack down he thought he would peep into it and see its contents. He cut only a tiny hole, but immediately the stars began Hying out and tilling the heavens everywhere. The little animal was too tired to n^turn to CTt'sSt, who, how- ever, soon joined him, followed by all her people, who came in the order above mentioned. After the turkey passed out the door was firndy closed with a great rock so that the waters below could not follow them. When tTt'st^t looked for her sack she was astonished to find it nearly empty and she could not tell where the contents had gone; the little aninial sat by, very scared, and sad, and tTt's^t was angry with him and said, "You are very bad and disobedient and from this time forth you shall be blind," (and this is the reason the scarabaeus has no eyes, so the old ones sjiy). The little fellow, however, had saved a few of the stars by grabbing the sack and holding it fast; these Ot'sSt distributed in the heavens. In one group she placed seven stars (the great bear), in another three (part of Orion,) into another group she placed the Pleiades, and throwing the others far off into the heavens, exclaimed, "All is well!"

The cloud, lightning, thunder, and rainbow peoples followed the Sia into the upper world, making their homes in springs similar to those they had occupied in the lower world; these springs are also at the cardinal points, zenith and nadir, and are in the hearts of mountains with trees upim their summits. All of the people of Tinia, however, did not leave the lower world; only a portion were sent by Sils'sTstinnako to labor for the i)eople of the upper world. The cloud people are so numerous that, though the demands of the people of the earth are great.

38 THE 8IA.

there are always many passing about over Tinia for pleasure; these people ride on wheels, small wheels being used by the children and larger ones by the elders. In speaking of these wheels the Sia add : '*The Americans have stolen the secret of the wheels (referring to bicycles) from the cloud people."

The cloud people are careful to keep behind their masks, which assume diflerent forma according to the number of people and the work being done ; for instance, H6n'nati are white floating clouds behind which the people pass about for pleasure. Ile'lish are clouds like the plains, and behind these, the cloud people are laboring to water the earth. The water is brought from the springs at the base of the mountains in gourd jugs and vases, by the men, women, and children, who ascend from these springs to the base of the tree and thence through the heart or trunk to the top of the tree which reaches to Ti'nia; they then pass on to the designated point to be sprinkled. Though the lightning, thunder and rainbow peoples of the six cardinal points * have each their priestly rulers and theurgists of their cult societies, these are subordinate to the priest of the cloud people, the cloud people of each cardinal point having their separate religious and civil organizations. Again these rulers are subordinate to Ho'chiinui, arch ruler of the (iloud people of the world, the cloud people hold ceremonials similar to the Sia; and the figures of the slat altars of the Sia are supposed to be aiTanged just as the cloud people sit in their ceremonies, the figures of the altars representing members of the cult societies of the cloud and lightning peoples. The Sia in performing their rites assume relatively similar positions back of the altars.

When a priest of the cloud people wishes assistance from the thunder and lightning i)eoples he commands their ti'amonis to notify the theurgists to see that the labor is performed, he placing his cloud people under the direction of certain of his theurgists, keeping a general supervision himself over all. The people of Ti'nia are compensated by those of Ila'arts for their services. These oflFerings are placed at shrines, of which there are many, no longer left in view but buried from sight. Cigarettes are made of delicate reeds and filled with down from humming birds and others, minute quantities of precious beads . and corn pollen, and are offered to the priestly rulers and theurgists of Ti'nia.

The lightning people shoot their arrows to make it rain the harder, the smaller fla^shes coming from the bows of the children. The thunder people have human forms, with wings of knives, and by flapping these wings they make a great noise, thus frightening the cloud and lightning peoples into working the harder. The rainbow people were created to work in Ti'nia to make it more beautiful for the people of Ha'arts to look upon ; not only the elders making the beautiful bows.

'In tliitt paper the worda "cardinal pointa" are used to signify north, west, south, east, zenith, and nadir.

fiTKVKNsoNl MYTHC^LOGY. 39

but the children assisting in this work. The Sia have no idea how or of what the bows are made. They do, liowever, know that the war heroes traveled upon these bows.

The Sia entered this world in the far north, and the opening through which they emerged is known as Slii-pa-po. They gathered into camps, for they had no houses, but they soon moved on a vShort distance and built a village. Their only food was seeds of certain grasses, and tTt'set desiring that her children should have other food made fields north, west, south, and east of the village and i>lant<Hl bits of her heart, and corn was evolved (though CTt'sc^t had always known the name of corn, corn itself was not known until it originated in these tields),and tTt'st't declared : ^'Tliis corn is my heart and it shall be to my people as milk from my breasts."

After the Sia had remained at this village a year (referring to a time period) they desired to ])ass on to the cent(*r of the earth, but the earth was very moist and Ct'set was puzzled to know how to harden it.

She commanded the presence of the cougjir, and asked him if he had any medicine to harden the road that they might pass over it. . The c<mgar replied, **I will try, mother;" but after going a short distance over the road, he sank to his shoulders in the wet earth, and he returned much afraid, and told flt'sct that he could go no farther. She then sent for the bear and asked him what he could do; and he, like the cougar, made an attempt to harden the earth; he had i)assed but a short distance when he too sank to his shoulders, and being afraid to go farther returned, saying, 'I can do nothing." The badger then made the attempt, with the same result; then tin, shrew (Sore.v) and afterward the wolf, but they also failed. Then Ut'set returned to the lower world and asked Sus'sTstinnako what she could do to harden the earth so that her people might travel over it. Sfis'sTstinuako inquired, "Have you no medicine to make the earth iirmf Have you asked the cougar and the bear, the wolf, the badger and the shrew to use their medicines to harden the earth !" And she reidied, " I have tried all these." Then, said Sus^slstinnako, "Others will understand;" and he told tTt's^t to have a woman of the Ka'pTna (spider) soc^iety to use her medicine for this purpose. Upon the return of CTt'sct to the upper world, she commanded the presence of a female member of this society. Upon the arrival of this woman CTt'sc^t said, "My mother, Sns'slstinnako, tells me the Ka'i)tna society understands the secret how to make the earth strong." The woman replied, "I do not know how to make the earth firm." Three times tyt^sct ciuestioned the wonnin regarding the hardening of the earth, and each time the woman replied, "1 do not know." The fourth time the ciuestion was i)ut the woman said, "Well, I guess I know; I will try;" and she called together the members of the society of the Ka'plna and said to them, "Our mother, Sus'sTstinnako bi<ls us work for her and harden the earth so that the people may pass over

it.'' The woman first made a road of fine cotton which she produced from her body (it will be remembered that the Ka^pina society was composed of the spider people), suspending it a few feet above the earth, and told the people they could now move on ; but when they saw the road it looked so fragile that they were afraid to trust themselves upon it. Then TJt'sfit said : *^ I wish a man and not a woman of the Ka'plna to work for me." A male member of the society then appeared and threw out the serpent (a fetich of latticed wood so i)ut together that it can be ex])anded and contracted) } and when it was extended it reached to the middle of the earth. He first threw it to the south, then to the east, then to the west. The Na'pakatsa (a fetich composed of slender sticks radiating from a center held together by a fine web of cotton; eagle down is atta(^hed to the cotton; when opened it is in the form of an umbrella, and when closed it has also the same form minus the handle) was then thrown upon the ground and stamped upon (the original Na'pakatsa was composed of cotton from the spider's body) ; it was placed first to the south, then east, west and north. The people being in the far north, the Na'pakatsa was deposited close to their backs.

The earth now being firm so that the people could travel, tlft'sfit selected for the ti'araoni who was to take her place with the people and lead them to the center of the earth, a man of the corn clan, saying to him, "I, tJt'sSt, will soon leave you; I will return to the home whence I came. You will be to my people as myself; you will pass with them over the straight road. I will remain in my house below and will hear all that you say to me. I give to you all my wisdom, my thoughts, my heart, and all. I fill your head with my mind." She then gave to her newly appointed representative a crooked staft' as insignia of his office, saying, " It is as myself; keep it always." " Thank you, mother," he replied, and all the people clasped the staff and drew a breath from it. "I give to you all the precious things which I brought to this world [tJt'sCt having brought these things in a sacred blanket on her backj. Be sure to follow the one straight road for all years and for all time to come. You will be known as Ti'jimoni [meaning the arch-ruler]. I bid you listen to all things good, and work for all things good, and turn from all thingsbad." Hereplied: "Itiswell, mother; 1 will do as you say." She then instructed this ruler to make the I'arriko^ (Pl.ix) which was to

'The I'ttrriko or ya'ya (mother) Is an car of com which may be any color but mast be aymmetrically perfect, and not a grain must be miasfng. Eagle and parrot plumed are placed iu pyramidal form around the com. In order that the center feathers may be suificiently long they are each attached to a very delicate splint. The base of this pyramid is foraied of splints woven together with native cotton cord and ornamented at the top with shells and precious beads. A pad of native cotton is attached to the lower end of the com. When the ya'ya is completed there in no evidence of the corn, which is renewed every four years when the old corn is planted. The ya'ya is made only by the theurgistH of the cult societies, and continency must be practiced four days previous to the making of the I'&rriko, and an emetic taken each of the four mornings before breaking fast for purification f^om c-oz^ugal rela* tions. A ya'ya is preacnted by the thourgist to each official member, the little ones being apparently as appreciative and proud as their elders of the honor conferred upon them. The I'iirriko is the Sia's supreme idol. The one given to the writer by the theurglst of the knife society is now in the National Muaenm.

"¥■

represent herself that they might have herself always with them and know her always. Again tlft's^t said : *' When you wish for anything make hii'chamoni and plant them, and they will bear your messages to your mother in the world below.^

Before Ct'set left this world she selected six Sia women, sending one to the north, one to the west, one to the south, one to the east, one to the zenith, and one to •the nadir, to make their homes at these x)oint8 for all time to come, that they might be near the cloud rulers of the cardinal i>oints and intercede for the people of Ila'arts; and tTt's^t enjoined her people to remember to ask these women, in times of need, to appeal to the clcmd people for them.

The Sia alone followed the command of ttt's^t and took the straight road, while all other pueblos advanced by various routes to the center of the earth. After fTt'st't's departure the Sia traveled some distance and built a village of beautiful white stone, where they lived four years (years referring to time periods). The Sia declare that their stay at the white house was of long duration. FTere parents suffered great distress at the hand of the tianu)ni, who, objecting to the increase of his people, for a time caused all children to be put to death. The Sia had scarc(»ly recov^ered from this calamity when a serious difficulty arose between the men and women. Many women sat grinding meal and singing; they had worked hard all day, and at sundown, when the men returned to the h<mses, the women began abusing them, saying: " You are no good ; you do not (;are to work ; you wish to be with women all the time. If ycm would allow four days to pass between, the women would care more for you." The men replied: *'You women care to be with us all day and all night; if you women could have the men only every four days you would be very unhappy." Thti women retorted : "It is you men wlio would be unhappy if you could be with the women only every four days."

And the men and women grew very angry with one another. The men cried: ''Were it ten days, twenty days, thirty days, we could remain apart from you and not be unhappy." The women replied: '^ We think not, but we women w<mld be very contented to remain away from you men for sixty days." And the men said: ''We men would be happy to remain apart from you women for five moons." The women, growing more excited, cried: ''You do not speak the truth; we women would be contcMited to be separated from you ten mo<ms." The men retorte^d: ''We men could remain away from you women twenty moons and be very happy." "You do not speak the truth," said the women, "for you wish to be with us all the time, day and night."

Three days they quarreled and on the fourth day the women separated from the men, going on one side of the pueblo, the men and boys gathering on the other side. All the women went into one chi-ta, the men into another. The women had a great talk and the men held a council. The men and women were very angry with one another.

\

The tiamoui, who presided over the council, said : '* I think if you and the women live apart you will each be contented." And on the following morning he had all the men and male children who were not being nourished by their mothers cross the great river which ran by the village, the women remaining in the village. The men departed at sun- rise, and the women were delighted. They said: "We can do all the work; we understand the men's work and we. can work like them.'' The men said to ea<^h other: "We can do the tlungs the women did for us." As they left the village the men called to the women: "We leave you to yourselves, perhai)s for one year, perhaps for two, and perhaps longer. For one year you may be happy to be apart from us. Perhaps we will be happy to be separated from you; perhaps not; we can not tell. We men are more amorous than you."

Some time was required for the men to cross the river, as it was very wide. The tiamoni led the men and remained with them. The women were comi)elled by the tiamoni to send their male infants over the river as soon as they ceased nourishing them. For ten moons the men and women were very happy. The men hunted a great deal and had much game for food, but the women had no animal food. At the expiration of the ten moons some of the women were sad away from the men. The men grew stout and the women very thin. As the second year passed more of the women wanted the men, but the men were perfectly satis&ed away from the women. After three years the women more and more wished for the men, but the men were but slightly desirous of the women. When the fourth year was half gone the women called to the tiamoni, saying: "We want the men to come to us." The female children had grown up like reeds; they had no flesh on them. The morning after the women begged the tiamoni for the return of the men they recrossed the river to live again with the women, and in four days after their return the women had recovered their flesh.

Children were born to the women while they were separated from the men, and when born they were entirely unlike the Sia, and were a different people. The mothers, seeing their children were not like themselves, did not care for them and drove them from their homes. These unnatural children matured in a short time, becoming the sk6yo (giant cannibals). As soon as they were grown they began eating the Sia. They caught the children just as the coyote catches his prey. They made large fires between great rocks, and throwing the c^iildren in, roasted them alive, and afterward ate them. When parents went to the woods to look for their lost children, they too were caught by the giants and roasted. No one ever returned to the village to tell the tale. The Sia were not only devoured by the sk6yo, but by those animals who quarreled with their people at the time of the rupture between the Sia men and women, the angry animals joining the sk6yo in their attacks upon the Sia.

Although the children were destroyed whenever they ventured from

their homes the vigilance of some of the parents saved the race, and in spite of the numerous deaths the people increased, and they built many houses. Four years (referring to periods of time) the Sk6yo and animals captured and ate the Sia whenever they left their villages, but the Sia were not always to suffer this great evil.

The sun father determined to relieve the people of their trouble and so he became the father of twin boys.

Ko'chinako, a virgin (the yellow woman of the north), when Journeying to visit the (tenter of the earth, lay down to rest. She was embraced by the Sun, and from this embrace she became pregnant. In four days she gave evident signs of her condition, and in eight days it was still more perceptible, and in twelve days she gave birth to male twins. During her condition of gestation her mother, the spider woman, was very angry, and insisted upon knowing the father of the child, but the daughter could not tell her; and when the mother asked when she became pregnant, she could not reply to the question, and the mother said: "I do not care to s<»e the child when it is born; I wish to be far away." And as soon as the daughter complained of approaching labor the mother left, but her heart softened toward her child and she soon returned. In four days from the birth of the boys they were able to walk. When twins are born, the first-born is called Kat'saya and the second Kat'che.

Ko'chinako named her first born M a'-a-se-we and the second U'-yuuyew?. These children grew rapidly in intelligence, but they always remained small in stature. One day they inquired of their mother, "Wliere is our father!" The mother replied, "He is far away; Jisk no more questions." But again they asked, "Where is our father! " And they received the same reply from the mother. The third time they asked, and a fourth time, when the mother said, "Poor children, your father lives far away to the east." They dex^lared they would go to him, but she insisted they could not; that to reach him they would have to go to the center of a great river. The boys were so earnest in their entreaties to be allowed to visit their father, that the mother finally consented. Their grandmother (the spider woman) made them each a bow and arrows, and the boys started off on their journey, traveling a long way. Upon reaching the river they were puzzled to know how to enter their father's house. While they stood thinking, their grandinother (the spider woman) ai)peared and said, "I will make a bridge for you." She spun a web back and forth, but when the bridge was completed the boys feared to cross it; it appesired so frail. Then the gi^andmother tested the bridge to show them it was safe. They, being now satisfied, crossed the bridge and dc^scended to the center of the river, and there found their father's house. The wife of their father inquired of the boys, " Who are you, and where did you come from?" "We come to find our father." The woman then asked, "Who is your father!" and they answere<i, "The Sun is our father;" and the

wife was angry and said, "You tell an untruth." She gave them a bowl of food, which was, however, only the scraps left by her children.

In a little while the Sun returned home. His wife was very indignant; "I thought you traveled only for the world, but these children say you are their father." The Sun replied, "They are my children, because all people are my children under my arm." This satisfied the wife, even though the children appealed directly to the Sun as father. When he saw the boys were eating scraps, he took the bowl, threw out the contents, and had his wife give them proper food. He then called one of his men who labored for him, and said, "Build me a large fire in the house," designating a sweat-house, " lined with turkis, and heat it with hot rocks," the rocks being also turkis. He sent the children into this house and had the door closed upon them. The Sun then ordered water poured upon the hot rocks through an opening in the roof, but the children cooled the sweat-house by spitting out tiny shells from their mouths.

When the Sun ordered the door of the sweat-house opened he was surprised to find the children still alive. He then had them cast into another house, which was very large and filled with elk, deer, antelope, and buffalo; he peeped through an opening in the wall and saw the boys riding on the backs of the elk and deer apparently very happy and contented. He then had them placed in a house filled with bear, cougar, and rattlesnakes, and he x>eeped in and saw the children riding on the backs of the bear and cougar and they were hai)py and not afraid, and he said, "Surely they are my children," and he opened the doors and let them out, and asked, "My children, what do you wish of mef" "Nothing, father," they replied, "We came only to find our father." He gave to each of them a bow and arrows, and to each three sticks (the rabbit stick), which he told them not to use until they reached home for if they threw one, intending it only to go a little way it would go very far. When they had proceeded on their journey but a short distance Ma'asewe said to U'yuuyew^, "Let us try our sticks and see how far they will go;" but U'yuuyew6 refused, saying, "No; our father told us not to use them until our return home." Ma'asewe continued to plead with his younger brother, but he was wise and would not yield. Finally Ma'asewe threw one of his, and it was going a great distance off, but he stopped it by throwing shells from his mouth.

The mother and grandmother were delighted to see the boys again, and happy for all to be under one roof, but the boys, particularly Ma'asewe, were soon anxious to travel. They wished to try the bows their fatheiv had given them, and after they had been home four days they started on a hunt. The mother said to the boys: "Children, 1 do not wish you to go far; listen attentively to what I have to say. Away to the east is a lake where many skoyo and their animal companions live and when the sun is over the middle of the world these people go to the lake to get water. They are very bad people and you

8TBVKK80K.1 THE TWINS. 45

must not go near the lake.'' Ma'asewe replied, "Very well, mother; I do not care to go that way and I will look about near home." But when the boys had gone a little distance Ma'asewe said to his younger brother, "Let us go to the lake that mother talked of. " U'yuuyewe replied: "I do not care to go there, because our mother told us not to go that way;'' but Ma'ase we importuned his younger brotlier to go, and U'yuuyewC replied, "Very well." They then followed the road indicated by their mother until the lake was discovered.

It was now about the middle of the day, and Ma'asewe said "There are no people here, none at all; I guess mother told us a story;" but in a little while he saw a great wolf approach the lake; then they saw him enter the lake; he was thirsty, and drank; both boys saw him at the bottom of the lake and they exclaimed: ''Si»e! he h)oks pretty in the bottom of the lake." Ma'asewe said: "1 guess he will drink all the water; see, the water grows less and less." And when all the water was gone there was no wolf in the bottom of the lake and then the boys discovered the wolf on a low mesa, it having been only his reflection they had seen in the lake. The boys aimed their arrows at him, but they did not hit him and the wolf threw a large stick at them, but they bowed their heads and it passed over them. Ma'asewe said to U'yuuyewt* : " I guess these people are those of whom mother spoke; see," said he, "this stick is the same as those given us by our father." The boys carried their rabbit sticks of gieat size and Ma'asewe aimed one of his at the wolf, who wore a shii-t of stone which could be penetrated only at certain points. The wolf again threw a stick, but the boys jumped high from the ground and the stick passed under them. Ma'asewe said to U'yuuyew?, "Now, younger brother, you try." U'yuuyewC had not used his arrows or sticks up to this time. He replied, " All right," and throwing one of his sticks he struck the wolf in the side, and the protective shirt was destroyed for the moment. Then Ma'asewe threw a stick, but the shirt of stone again appeared protecting the wolf. U'yuuyew^, throwing a second stick killed the wolf. Then Ma'asewe said, " Younger brother, the wolf is destroyed; let us return; but we will first secure his heart;" and with a stone knife he cut the wolf down the breast in a straight line, and took out the heart, which he preserved, saying: "Now we >nll return to our home. "

Upon their reaching home, their motlu^r in^juired: "Where have you been, where have you been!" *'We have been to the lake," said the boys. "My boys, you are fooling me." "No, we are speaking the tnith." "Why did you go there?" Ma'asewe replied, "We wished very much to see the lake." The niother asked: " Did you not see any Sko'yof" "Yes," said Ma'asewe, "we saw one; at h^ist we saw a great wolf;" and the mother cried, "Oh, my boys, you are not good boys to go there." Then Ma'asewe told his mother that they had killed the wolf. At first, she refused to believe him; but when Ma'asewe de-

46 THE 8IA.

clared he spoke the truth, the mother took the boys to her breast and said: "It is well, my children.'^ In a short time the boys started out on another tour. Before leaving home, they inquired of their mother where good wood for arrow shafts could be procured. "Far off to the north in a canyon is good wood for shafts, but a bad man sits in the road near by; this path is very narrow, and when one passes by he is kicked into the canyon by this bad man, and killed." Ma'asewe declared to his mother he did not care to go there, but he was not far from her eyes before he prevailed ui)on U'yuuyew6 to accompany him to this canyon, saying: "Let us go where we can find the best wood.''

It required some persuasion from Ma'asewe, as U'yuuyewC at first declared he would not disobey his mother. They traveled a long way ere reaching the bad old man, the cougar, but when they saw him they approached very cautiously, and Ma'asewe asked him if he could tell him " where to find good wood for arrow shafts.'' "Yes, I know," replied the cougar; "down there is much," pointing to the canyon below. Ma'asewe inquired, "How can I reach the canyon!" The cougar said, "Pass by me; this is the best way." Ma'asewe declared he must not walk before his elders, but the cougar insisted that the boys should pass in front of him. They were, however, determined to pass behind. Finally the cougar said, "All right." Ma'asewe asked him to rise while they passed, but he only bent a little forward; then Ma'asewe said, " Lean a little farther forward, the path is narrow;" and the cougar bent his body a little more, when Ma'asewe placed his hands on the cougar's shoulders, pressing him forward, saying, "Oh! the way is so narrow ; lean just a little more ; see, I can not pass." U'yuuyewfi, who was close to Ma'asewe, put both his hands on the cougar's right shoulder, while his brother placed his on the left, they saying to him, "Just a little farther forward," and, with their combined effort, they threw him to the canyon below, Ma'asewe crying out, " This is the way you have served others." The cougar was killed by the fall.

The boys then descended into the canyon and gathered a quantity, of wood for their arrow shafts. When their mother saw the wood she cried, "You naughty boys! where have you been!" They replied, "We have killed the cougar." The mother refused to believe them, but Ma'asewe declared they spoke the truth. She then embraced her children with pride and joy.

Two days the boys were busy making shafts, to which they attached their arrows. Then Ma'asewe desired plumes for the shafts. " Mother," said he, "do you know where we can find eagle plumes!" "Yes, I know where they are to be found. Away on the brink of a canyon in the west there are many plumes, but there is a very bad man there." Ma'asewe said, " Well, I do not care to go there. We will look elsewhere for plumes." But he had scarcely left the house when he urged U'yuuyew6 to ac(^ompany him to the brink of the canyon. " No," said U'yuuyewC, " I do not care to go there. Besides the bad man mother

spoke of, there are many other bears; " but Ma'asewe finally persuaded U'yuuyewg to accompany him.

After a time Ma'asewe cried; "See, there is the house; younger brother, you remain a little way biick of me, and when the bear passes by you aim your arrow at him. " Ma'asewe approached the house, and when the bear discovered the boy he started after him. Just as the bear was passing U'yuuyewc be shot bini througli the heart. Ma'asewe drew his knife down the breast of the bear, and took out his heart, cutting it into pieces, preserving the bits. " Now," said Ma'asewe, " let us hasten and secure the plumes.''

They found many beautiful feathers. Then, returning to the bear, they flayed him, preserving the lower skin of the legs with the claws, separate from the remainder of the skin. They filled the body with grass and tied a rope around the neck and body, and Ma'asewe led the way, holding one end of the rope, he drawing the bear and U'yuuyewfi holding the other end of the roi)e to steady the animal. As they approached their home they cried, " Mother, mother, see ! " Their mother, liearing the cry, called, " Whjit is it my children!" as she advanced to meet them, but when she discovered the bear she returned quickly to the house, exclaiming: "Let the bear go; do not bring him here; why do you bring the bad bear here!" The boys, following their mother, said, " Mother, the bear is dead."

The boys remained at home two days completing their arrows. Then Ma'asewe said to his mother, " Mother, we wish to hunt fi)r deer. Our arrows are good and we must have meat." "That is good, my children, but listen. Away to the south lives an eagle in a high rock. She has two children. The father also lives there, and these parents are very large, and they eat all the little ones they find. Ma'asewe replied, "We will not go there." But he was no sooner out of his mother's sight than he declared they must go to the home of the eagle. After they had proceeded a little way they saw a deer, and Ma'asewe drew his bow and shot him through the heart. They cut the deer down the breast, drew the intestines, and, after cleansing them from blood, the boys wrapped them around their necks, arms, and breast, over their right shoulders, and around their waists. "Now," said Ma'asewe, "we can approach the house of the eagle." When the boys drew near the eagles flew to the earth. One eagle, catching Ma'asewe and flying far above the house, drop])ed him on a sharp stone ledge in front of his house. The stone was sharp, like the blade of a knife, and it broke the intestines of the deer, which protected him from the rock, and the blood fell like rain. Ma'asewe lay still and the eagle thought he was dead. The mate then descended and caught t^'yunyewfi and, flying above her house, dropped him also upon the rock. He, too, lay perfectly still, and the eagles thought he was dead. "Now," said the eagles, "our children will be happy and contented, for they have abundance of meat." In a little while these birds started off on a long journey.

The young ones, having been informed by their parents that they were well provided with food, which would be found in front of their door when hungry, went out for the meat. Ma'asewe and tJ'yuuyewfi astonished them by speaking to them. They asked, "When will your mother return!" The children replied, "Our mother will return in the forenoon." "When your mother returns will she come to this house!" "No," replied the young eagles, "she will go to the one above and come here later." "When will your father arrive!" "Ue will come a little later." "Will he come here!" they asked. "No; he will go to the house above." Ma'asewe then destroyed the young eagles. After killing them he dropped them to the earth below. Upon the return of the mother she stood upon the rock above, and Ma'asewe aimed his arrow at her and shot her through the heart, and she fell to the earth dead; and later, when the father returned, he met with the same fate.

Now, the boys had destroyed the bad eagles of the world. Then Ma'asewe said, "Younger brother, how will we get down from here! The road to the earth is very long," and, looking up, he said, "The road to the rock above is also very long." Presently Ma'asewe saw a little K6-ow-uch, or ground squirrel {Tamias 8triatu4t)j and he called to him, saying, "My little brother, we can not get down from here. If you will help us we will pay you; we will give you beautiful eagle plumes.''

The squirrel planted a piiion nut directly below the boys, and in a short time — almost immediately — for the squirrel knew much of medicine, £^tall tree was the result. "Now," said the squirrel, "youhavea good road. This is all right; see!" And the little animal ran up the tree and then down again, when the boys followed him.

Upon their return home their mother inquired, "Where have you been!" and when they told her they had visited the house of the eagle she said, "You have been very foolish." At first she disbelieved their statement that they had destroyed the eagles; but they finally convinced her and she embraced her boys with i>ride. Tbe grandmother was also highly pleased.

The boys remained at home only two days, Ma'asewe being impatient to be gone, and he said to his brother, " Let us go travel again." The home of the boys was near the center of the earth, Ko'chinako remaining here for a time after their birth. When the mother found they were going to travel and hunt again, she begged of them not to go far, for there were still bad people about, and Ma'asewe promised that they would keep near their home. They had gone but a short distance when they saw a woman (a sko'yo) approaching, carrying a large pack which was secured to her back by strings passing around her arms near the shoulder. Ma'asewe whispered to his brother: "See! there comes a sko'yo." The boys stood side by side, when she approached and said, "What are you children doing here!" Ma'asewe replied, "We are just looking about; nothing more." The sko'yo passing her hands over the boys said, "What pretty boys! What pretty children!

sTivKHBON.) THE HOUSE OF THE SKOYO. 49

Come with me to my bouse.'' "All right, we will go,'' Ma^asewe being the spokeHinan. "Get into the pa<3k on my back and 1 will carry you." When the boys were tucked away the sko'yo started for her home.

After a time she came to a broad, level, grassy country and Ma'asewe called: "Woman! do not go far in this country where there are no trees, for the sun is hot and when there is no shade I get very sick in my head. See, woman," he continued, " there in the mountains are trees and the best road is there." The sko'yo called out, "All right," and started toward the mountains. She came to a point where she must stoop to pass under drooping limbs upon which restetl branches, which had fallen from other trees. Ma'asewe whispered to 0yuuyew(^, '•When she stoops to pass under we will catch hold of the tree and hang there until she is gone." The boys caught on to the fallen timber which rested across the branches of the tree, and the sko'yo traveled on unconscious of their escape. When she had gone some distance she wondered that she heard not a sound and she called, " Children!" and no answer; and again she called, "Children," and receiving no answer she cried, "Do not go to sleep," and she continued to call, "Do not go to sleep." Hearing not a word from the boys she shook the pack in order to awaken them, as she thought they were sleeping soundly. This bringing no reply she placed the pack upon the ground and to her surprise the boys were not there. " The bad boys! the bad boys!" she cried, as she retraced her steps to look for them. " Where can they be! where can they be!"

When she discovered them hanging from a tree she called, " You bad boys! why are you there?" Ma'asewe said, "No! woman; we are not bad. We only wished to stop here and see this timber; it is very beautiful." She compelled them to get into the pack and again started off, saying to the children, " You must not go to sleep." The journey was long ere the house of the sko'yo was reached. She said, " I am glad to be home again," and she placed the pack on the floor, telling the boys to get out. " My children, I am very tired and hungry. Run out and get me some wood for fire." Ma'asewe whispered to his younger brother, " Let us go for the wood."

In a little while the boys returned with loads of wood on their backs. Pointing to a small conical house near by, she said, "Children, carry the wood there," and the sko'yo built a fire in the house and called the boys to look at it saying, " Children, come here and see the fire; it is good and warm." Ma'asewe whispered to his younger brother, "What does the woman want?" Upon their approach the sko'yo said, " See! I have made a great fire and it is good and warm; look in ;" and as the children passed in front of her she pushed them into the house and closed the door. She wished to cook the boys for her supper, and she smacked her lips with satisfaction in anticipation of the feast in store for her. But she was to be disappointed, as the boys threw shells from their months which instantly protected them from the heat.

11 BTH i

After closiug the door on the boys the woman went into her house and bathed all over in a very large bowl of yucca suds, washing her head first, and taking a seat she said to herself, '^All is well. I am most contented and happy." The boys were also contented. The woman, thinking it was about time her supper was cooked, removed the stone which she had placed in the doorway and secured with plaster. The boys had secreted themselves in one side of the house, where they kept quiet. What she supposed to be their flesh was i'isa (excrement) which the boys had deposited there. The woman removed this with great care and began eating it. (This woman had no husband and lived alone.) She said to herself, ^^ This is delicious food and cooked so well,'^ and again and again she remarked to herself the delicious flavor of the flesh of the boys. Finally Ma'asewe cried, <^ Yon are not eating our flesh but our i'isa," and she looked around but could see no one. Then U^ynuyew^ called, ^^You are eating our i'isa," and again she listened and looked about, but could see no one. The boys continued to call to her, but it was sometime before she discovered them sitting in the far end of the room. "What bad boys you are,'' she cried, "1 thought I was eating your flesh." Tlie woman hastened out of the house and tickling her throat with her finger vomited up the offal.

She again sent the boys for wood, telling them to bring much, and they returned with large loads on their backs, and she sent them a second time and they returned with another quantity. Then she again built a fire in the small house and left it, and the two boys exclaimed, "What a great fire!" and Ma'asewe called to the woman, "Come here and see this fire; see what a hothouse; I guess this time my brother and I will die;" and the woman stooped to look at the fire, and Ma'asewe said to her, " Look away in there. See, we will surely die this time. Look! there is the hottest point!" he standing behind the woman and pointing over her shoulder, the woman bending her head still lower to see the better, said, "Yes; the fire is best off there." "Yes," said Ma'asewe, " it is very hot there;" and the Sko'yo was filled with interest, aild looked intently into the house. The boys, finally, inducing her to stoop very low so that her tskce was near the doorway, pushed her into the hot bed of coals, and she was burned to death.

The boys rejoiced, and Ma'asewe said, " Kow that the woman is dead, let us go to her house." They found the house very large, with many rooms and doors. In the middle of the floor there was a small circular door which Ma'asewe raised, and looking in, discovered that below it was very dark. Pointing downward, he said, "Though I can not see, I guess this is the most beautiful room. I think I will go below; perhaps we will find many good things." As soon as he entered the door he disappeared firom sight and vanished firom hearing. U'yuuyewS, receiving no reply to his calls, said to himself, " Ma'asewe has found many beautiful things below, and he will not answer me; I will go and see for myself!" After entering the door, he knew nothing until he

foand himself by the side of his elder brother, and, passing through the doorway, the boys tumbled over and over into a lower world.

When Ma'asewe reached this new world he was unconscious from the fall, but after a time he revived sufficiently to sit up, when he beheld U'yuuyew^ tumbling down, and he fell by the side of Ma'asewe, who was almost dead, and Ma'asewe said, ^'Younger brother, why did you follow me! '' After a while U'yuuyewg was able to sit up and Ma'asewe remarked: *^ Younger brother, I think we are in another world. 1 do not know where we are, and I do not know what hour it is. I guess it is about the middle of the day. What do you think?" U'yuuyew6 replied, "You know best, elder brother; whatever you think is right," and Ma'asewe said, "All right. Let us go now over the road to the house where the sun enters in the evening, for I think this is the world where our father, the sun, returns at night."

A little after the middle of the day Ma'asewe was walking ahead of U'yuuyewft, who was following close behind, and he said to his younger brother as he listened to some noise, "I believe we are coming to a village." When they drew a little nearer they heard a drum, and supposed a feast was going on in the plaza, and in a little while they came in sight of the village and saw that there was a great feast there. All the people were gathered in the plaza. The chi'ta was a little way from the village and there was no one in it, as the boys discovered when they approached it, and they ascended the ladder. Ma'asewe said, "This is the chi'ta. Let us enter." The mode of entering shows this chi'ta to have been built above ground. Upon invading the chi'ta they found it very large and very pretty, and there were many fine bows and arrows hanging on the walls. They took the bows and examining them said to one another, "What fine bows and arrows! They are all fine. Look," and they were eager to possess them. Ma'asewe proposed that they should each take a bow and arrows and hurry away, saying: "All the people are in the plaza looking at the dance, and no one will see us;" and they hastened from the chi'ta with their treasures. Ma'asewe said, "Younger brother, let us return over the road whence we came."

But a short time elapsed when a man had occasion to visit the chi'ta, and he at once discovered footprints, and entering, found that bows and arrows had been stolen; hurrying to the plaza he informed the X)eople of the theft, saying, "Two men have entered the chi'ta. I saw their footprints," and the people cried out, " Let us follow them," and ran over the road which the boys had taken. The boys had nearly reached the point where they had lighted when they entered this lower world when the people were close upon tliem.

The little fellows had to run hard, but they held fast to their bows and arrows, and just as they stepped upon the spot where they had fallen when they descended, their pursuers being close upon them, a whirlwind carried them up and through the door and back into the

house of the sko'yo. Ma'asewe said, "Younger brother, let us liurry to our mother. She must be sad. What do you think she imagines has become of usf U'yuuyewg replied, "I guess she thinks we have been killed," The boys started for their home. When they were still far from their house Ma'asewe asked, "Younger brother, wliere do you think these bows and arrows were madet" Holding them up before his eyes as he spoke, he said, " I think they are very flne.'^ U'yuuyewC remarked, "Yes, they are fine."

Ma'asewe then shot one of the arrows a great distance and it made much noise, and it was very beautiful and red. U'yuuyewg also shot one of his. " Younger brother," said Ma'asewe, " these are fine arrows, but they have gone a great way." When they were near their mother's house, they again used their bows and were so delighted with the light made by the arrows that each shot another and another. The mother and grandmother, hearing the noise, ran out of their house, and became much alarmed when they looked to Ti'nia and saw the flashes of light and then they both fell as dead. Previous to this time the lightning arrows were not known on this earth, as the lightning people had not, to the present time, let any of their arrows fall to the earth. When the mother was restored she was very angry, and inquired of the boys where they had found such arrows, and why they had brought them home. "Oh, mother," cried the boys, "they are so beautiful, and we like them very much."

The boys remained at home three days, and on the fourth day they saw many he'ash (clouds, like the plains) coming and bringing the arrows the boys had shot toward Ti'nia, and when the cloud i>eople were over the house of the boys they began watering the earth; it rained very hard, and presently the arrows began falling. Ma'asewe cried with delight, "See, younger brother, the lightning people have brought our arrows back to us, let us go and gather them." The cloud people worked two days sending rain and then returned to their home.

Ma'asewe said to his mother, "We will go now and pass about the country." She begged of them not to go any great distance. " In the west," said she, " there is a very bad antelope. He will eat you." Ma'- asewe promised the mother that they would not go far, but when at a short distance from home he said to his younger brother, " Why does not mother wish us to go there!" pointing to the west. "Let us go." U'yuuyewg replied, "No, mother does not wish it." He was finally persuaded by Ma'asewe, and when near the house of the antelope the boys discovered him. There was neither grass nor vegetation, but only a sandy plain without trees or stones. " I guess he is one of the people who, mother said, would eat us." U'yuuyewfi replied, "I guess so." Then Ma'asewe said, " Let us go a little nearer, younger brother." " You know what is best, " replied U'yuuyewC, " I will do whatever you say, but I think that if you go nearer he will run off." They counciled for a time and while they were talking the little Ohi'na (mole) came up

out of his hoase and said, ^^Boys, comedown into my house/' "No," said they, "we wish to kill the antelope,'' and Ma'asewe added, "I think you know all about him." "Yes," said the mole, "I have been near him and passed around him. " Then Ma'asewe requested him to go into his house and prepare a road for them that the antelope might not discover their approach. And the mole made an underground road to the point where the antelope stood (the antelope facing west) and bored a wee hole in the earth over this tunnel, and peeping through he looked directly upon the heart of the antelope; he. could see its pulsations. "Ah, that is good, I think," he exclaimed, and returning, he hastened to inform the boys. " Now, all is well," said the mole; "you can enter my house and approach the antelope." When they reached the tiny opening in the earth Ma'asewe looked up and said, "See, younger brother, there is the heart of the antelope directly above us; I will shoot first;" and pointing his arrow to the heart of the antelope and drawing his bow strongly he pierced the heart, the shaft being buried almost to its end in the body. " We have killed the antelope," cried Ma'asewe, "now let us return quickly over the under- ground road." While the boys were still in this tunnel, the antelope, who was not killed immediately by the shot, was mad with rage and he ran first to the west to look for his enemy, but he could see no one; then he ran to the south and found no one; then he turned to the east with the same result, and then to the north and saw no one, and he returned to the spot where he had been shot, and looking to the earth discovered the diminutive opening. "Ah," said he, "I think there is some one below who tried to kill me." By this time the boys were quite a distance from the hole through which the arrow had passed. The antelope thrust his left horn into the opening and tore up the earth as he ran along above the tunnel. It was like inserting a knife under a piece of hide; but he had advanced only a short distance when he fell dead. The youths then came up from the house of the mole and cried out, "See! the antelope is dead."

Ma'asewe said, "Younger brotlier ! let us go and get the fiesh of the antelope." U'yuuyewfi remarked, "perhaps he is not yet dead. " The mole said, "you boys wait here; I will go and see if he still lives," and after examining and passing around him, he found that the body was quite cold, and returning to the boys said, "Yes, boys, the antelope is dead." "Perhaps you do not speak the truth," said Ma'asewe, but the mole repeated "The antelope is dead." Ma'asewe insisted, however, that the mole should again examine him and the little animal made a second visit. This time he dipped his hands into the heart's blood of the animal and rubbed it all over his face, head, body, arms, and legs, for Ma'asewe had accused him of lying and he wished this time to carry proof of the death of the antelope; and returning to the boys he cried, "See, boys, I am covered with the blood, and I did not lie." Then Ma'asewe proposed that the three should go together; and when they

54 THE StA.

reached the antelope, Ma'asewe cut the breast with his stone knife, passing the knife from the throat downwards. The boys then flayed the antelope; Ma'asewe cut the heart and the flesh into bits, throwing the pieces to the north, west, south, and east, declaring that hereafter the antelope should not be an enemy to his people, saying, "His flesh shall furnish food for my i)eople. " Addressing the antelope he commanded, "From this time forth you will eat only vegetation and not flesh, for my people are to have your flesh for food. " He then said to the mole, "The intestines of the antelope will be food for you," and the mole was much pleased, and promptly replied, "Thank youj thank you, boys."

The boys now returned to their home and their mother, who, on meeting them, inquired, " Where have you beent You have been gone a long time ; 1 though t you were dead ; where have you been t" Ma'asewe answered, " We have been to the house of the antelope who eats i)eople." The mother said, " You are very disobedient boys." Ma'asewe continued, "We have killed the antelope, and now all the giants who devoured our people are destroyed, and all the people of the viUages will be happy, and the times will be good."

After Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewfi had destroyed the giant enemies of the world the people were happy and were not afraid to travel about; even the little children could go anywhere over the earth, and there was continual feasting and rejoicing among all the villages.

The Oraibi held a great feast (at that time the Oraibi did not live in their present pueblo) ; Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewfi desired to attend the feast, and telling their mother of their wish, she consented to tbeir going. When they were near the village ot the Oraibi they discovered the home of the bee, and Ma'asewe said, " See, brother, the house of the bee; let us go in; I guess there is much, honey." They found a large comb full of honey, and Ma'asewe proposed to his brother that they cover their whole bodies with the honey, so that the Oraibi would not know them and would take them for poor, dirty boys; "for, as we now are, all the world knows us, and to-day let us be unknown." "All right!" said U'yuuyewC, and they smeared themselves with honey. "Now," said the boys, "we are ready for the feast. It will be good, for the Oraibi are very good people." Upon visiting the plaza they found a large gathering, and the housetops were crowded with those looking at the dance. The boys, who approached the plaza from a narrow street in the village, stood for a time at the entrance. Ma'asewe remarked, " I guess all the people are looking at us and thinking we are very poor boys; see how they pass back and forth and do not speak to us;" but after awhile he said, "We are a little hungry; let us walk around and see where we can find something to eat." They looked in all the houses facing upon the plaza and saw feasting within, but no one invited them to enter and eat, and though they inspected every house in the village, they were invited into but one. At this house the woman said, "Boys, come in and eat; I guess you are hungry."

mvKiBo«4 ADVENTURES. 55

After the repast they thanked her, saying, <' It was very good." Then Ma'asewe said, <' You, woman, and you, man,'' addressing her husband, "you and all your family are good. We have eaten at your house; we give you many thanks; and now listen to what I have to say. I wish you and all of your children to gooff a distance to another house; to a house which stands alone; the roand house off from the village. All of you stay there for awhile." The boys then left. After they had gone the woman drank from the bowl which they had usea, and, smacking her lips, said to her husband, "There is something very sweet in this bowl." Then aU the children drank from it, and they found the water sweet, and the woman said, "Let us do the will of these boys; let us go to the house;" and, the husband consenting, they, with their children, went to the round house and remained for a time.

Ma'asewe and U^yuuyew^ lingered near the village, and the people were dancing in the plaza and feasting in their houses, when suddenly they were all transformed into stone. Those who were dancing, and those who sat feasting, and mothers nourishing infants, all were alike petrified ; and the beings, leaving these bodies, immediately ascended, and at once became the pinonero (Canada jay). The boys, returning to their home, said, "Mother, we wish food; we are hungry." Their mother inquired, "Why are you hungry; did you not get enough at the feast f" "No; we are very hungry and wish something to eat." The mother again asked if it was not a good feast. "Yes," said Ma^asewe, "but we are hungry." The mother, suspecting something wrong, remarked, "I am afiraid you have been bad boys; I fear you destroyed that village before you left." Ma'asewe answered "No." Four times the mother expressed her fears of their having destroyed the village. Ma'asewe then confessed, "Yes; we did destroy the village. When we went to the feast at Oraibi we were all day with hungry stomachs, and we were not asked to eat anywhere except in one house." And when the mother heard this she was angry, and Ma'asewe continued, "And this is the reason that I destroyed the villlage," and the mother cried, "It is good! I am glad you destroyed the people, for they were mean and bad."

When the boys had been home but two days their hearts told them that there was to be a great dance of the Ka^^suna at a village located at a ruin some 18 mile^ north of the present pueblo of Sia. Tiie Ti'amoni of this village had, through his officials, invited all the [jeople of all the villages near and far to come to the great dance. Ma'asewe said to his mother and grandmother (the spider woman), "We are going to the village to see the dance of the Ka'^suna." They replied, "We do not care much to have you go, because you, Ma'asewe and IJ'yuuyew6, are both disobedient boys. When you go off to the villages you do bad things. At Oraibi you converted the people into stone, and perhaps you will behave at this village as you did at Oraibi." Ma'asewe replied, "No, mother, no! We go only to see the Ka'^suna, and we wish to go, for we know it is to be a great dance; we wish very

much to see it^ and will not do as we did at Oraibi." Finally, the mother and grandmother said, ^^If you are satisfied to go and behave like good boys we will consent," It was a long way oflP, and the boys carried their bows and arrows that their father, the sun, had given them. They had proceeded but a short distance from their home, when the sun told them each to get on an arrow, and the father drew his bow, shooting both arrows simultaneously, the arrows striking the earth near where the dance was to occur. The boys alighted from their arrows and walked to the village. Every one wondered how they could have reached the village in so short a time. The boys stopped at the door of a house and, looking in, saw many people eating. They stood there awhile but were not asked in, and they passed on from door to door, as they had done at Oraibi, and no one invited them to eat. It was a very large village, and the boys walked about all day, and they were very angry. Discovering a house a little apart from the village, Ma'asewe said, "Let us go there," pointing to the house; "perhaps there we may get food," and upon reaching the door they were greeted by the man, woman, and children of the house, and were invited to eat. The boys were, as before, disguised with the honey spread over their bodies. After the meal Ma^asewe, addressing the man and woman, said: "You and your children are the first and only ones to invite us to enter a house and eat, and we are happy, and we give you thanks. We have been in this village all day and, until now, have had nothing to eat. I guess the i)eople do not care to have us eat with them. Why did your tiamoni invite people from all villages to come heret He was certainly not pleased to see us. You (addressing the man and woman) and your children must leave this village and go a little way off. It will be well for you to do so."

And this family had no sooner obeyed the commands of the boys than the people of the village were converted into stone, just as they were passing about, the Ka'^suna as they stood in line of the dance, some of them with their hands raised. It was never known what became of the beings of the Ka'^suna. Ma'asewe then said: "Younger brother, now what do you think!" U'yuuyewC replied, "I do not think at all; you know." "Yes," said Ma'asewe, "and I think perhaps I will not return to my house, the house of my mother and grandmother. I think we will not return there: we have converted the people of two villages into stone, and I guess our mother will be very unhappy." And again Ma'asewe said: " What do you think?" and U'yuuyewfi replied, "I do not think at all; you, Ma'asewe, you think well." Then Ma'asewe said, "All right; I think now I should like to go to see our father." " Well," said U'yuuyew6, "let us go to him."

There was a great rainbow (Kash'-ti-arts) in ti'nia; the feet of the bow were on the earth and the head touched the heavens. " Let us be off," said the boys. They stepped upon the rainbow, and in a short space of time the boys reached their father, the sun, who was in midheavens. The bow traveled fast. The sun saw the boys approaching

«ETEiwoN.) THE CULT SOCIETIES. 57

on the bow and knew them to be his children. He always kept watch over them, and when they drew near the father said, " My children, I am very happy to see you. You have destroyed all the giants of the earth who ate my people, and I am contented that they are no more; and it was well you converted the people of the two villages into stone. They were not good people." Then Ma'asewe said: ''Father, listen to me while I speak. We wish you to tell us where to go." "Yes," said the father, "I will; I know where it is best for you to make your home. Now, all the people of the earth are good and will be good from this time forth (referring to the destruction of the Sia by the cannibals). I think it will be well for you to make your home there high above the earth," pointing to the Sandia mountain, "and not return to the people of the earth." " All right, my father," replied Ma'asewe; " we are contented and happy to do as you say."

Before leaving their people Ma'asewe organized the cult societies of the upper world. These tiny heroes tlien made their home in the Sandia mountain, where they have since remained, traveling, as before, on the rainbow.

The diminutive footprints of theso boys are to be seen at the entrance of their house (the crater of the mountain) by the good of heart, but such privilege is afforded only to the ti'amoni and certain theurgists, they alone having perfect hearts; and they claim that on looking through the door down into the house they have seen melons, corn, and other things which had been freshly gathered.

After the expiration of four years the ti'iimoni desired to travel on toward the center of the earth, but before they had gone far they found, to their dismay, that the waters began to rise as in the lower world, and the whole earth became one vast river. The waters reached nearly to the edge of the mesa, which they ascended lor safety. The ti'iimoni made many offerings of plumes and other precious articles to propitiate the flood, but this did not stay the angry waters, and so he dressed a youth and maiden in their best blankets, and adorned them with many precious beeds and cast them from the mesa top ; and immediately the waters began to recede. When the earth was again visible it was very soft, so that when the animals went from the mesa they would sink to their shoulders. The earth was angry. The ti'iimoni called the Ka'- plna Society together and said, "I think you know how to make the earth solid, so we can pass over it," and the theurgist of that order replied^ "I think I know." The same means was used as on the previous occasion to harden the earth. The theurgist of the Ka'pTna returning said, "Father, I have been working all over the earth and it is now hardened." "That is well," said the ti'iimoni, "I am content. In four days we will travel toward the center of the earth."

During the journey of the Sia from the white- house in the north they built many villages. Those villages were close together, as the Sia did not wish to travel far at any one time. Finally, having concluded they had about reached the center of the earth, they determined to build a

permanent home. The ti'amoni, desiring that it should be an exact model of their house of white stone in the north, held a council, that he might gain information regarding the construction, etc., of the white village. ^< I wish," said the ti'lLmoni, ^^ to build a village here, after our white-house of the north, but I can not remember clearly the construction of the house," and no one could be found in the group to give a detailed account of the plan. The council was held during the night, and the ti'amoni said, <' To-morrow I shall have some one return to the whitehouse, and carefully examine it. I think the Si^sika (swallow) is a good man; he has a good head; and I think I will send him to the white-house," and calling theSi'sikahe said: '^Listen attentively; I wish you to go and study the structure of the white- house in the north; learn all about it, and bring me all the details of the buildings; how one house joins another." The Si'sika replied, "Very well, father; I will go early in the morning." Though the distance was great, the Si^sika visited the white-house, and returned to the ti'amoni a little after the sun had eaten (noon). "Father," said the Si^sika, "I have examined

er

T

o,

Qd

Flo, 15. marram of the white house of the north, dnwD by a theargiat.

Linea indicate houHea.

a, Street. d. Doorway of the north wind.

by Plaza. e, The great chita.

0, Plaza. Jy Cougar, mother of the north viUage.

the white- house in the north carefully, flying all over it and about it. I examined it well and can tell you all about it." The ti^amoni was pleased, for he had thought mucli concerning the white house, which was very beautifiil.

He at once ordered all hands to work, great labor being required in the construction of the village after the plan laid down by the Si^sika. Upon the completion of this village, the ti'amoni named it K6asaia. It is located at the ruin some 2^ miles north of the present site of Sia. (Pig. 15.) It is an accurate copy of a plan drawn by the theurgist who first related the cosmogony to the writer.

BTEVBfBON.l BORN OP A VIRGIK. 59

The tbenrgist explained that the cougar could not leave her post at the white stone village of the north ; therefore, the lynx was selected as her representative at this village. And no such opening as shown in d existed in the duplicated village, as the doorway of the north wind was ever in the north village. And the ti'amoni, with all his i>eople, entered the large chita and held services of thanksgiving. Great was the rejoicing upon the completion of the village, and the people planted com and soon had line fields.

The Sia occupied this village at the time of their visit from Po'shaiyanne, the quasi messiah, after he had attained his greatness, and when he made a tour of the pueblos before going into Mexico.

Po'shaiyanne was born of a virgin at the pueblo of Pecos, New Mexico, who became pregnant from eating two piuou nuts. The writer learned through Dr. Shields, of Archuleta, New Mexico, that the Jemez Indians have a similar legend. When want and starvation drove the Pecos Indians from their pueblo they sought refuge with the Jemez. Philologists claim that the languages of the Pecos and Jemez belong to the same stock. The woman was very much chagrined at the birth of her child, and when he was very young she cast him oflP and closed her doors upon him. He obtained food and shelter as best he could; of clothing he had none but the rags cast off by others. While still a little boy he would follow the ti'iimoni and theurgists into the chita and sit apart by the ladder, and listen to their wise talk, and when they wished a light for their cigarettes Po'shaiyanne would pass a brand from one to another. But no one ever spoke to him or thanked him, but he continue<l to follow the wise men into the chita and to light their cigarettes. Even when he reached years when other youths were invited to sit with the ti'amoni and theurgists and learn of them, he was never spoken to or invited to leave his seat by the entrance.

Upon arriving at the state of manhood he, aB usual, sat in the chita and passed the light to those present. Great was the surprise when it was discovered that a string of the rarest turkis encircled his right wrist. After he had lighted each cigarette and had returned to his seat by the entrance, the ti'iimoni called one of his men to him and said, "What is it I see upon the wrist of the boy Po'shaiyiinne j it looks like the richest turkis, but surely it can not be. Go and examine it." The man did as he was bid, and, returning, told the ti'amoni that it was indeed as he had supposed. The ti^iimoni requested the man to say to the youth that he wished to know where he obtained the turkis and that he desired to buy the bracelet of him. When the man repeated the message, Po'shaiyanne said, " I can not tc»ll him how it came upon my wrist, and I do not wish to sell it." The reply being delivered to the ti'fimoni, he said to his messenger, " Return to the youth and tell him I have a fine house in the north. It and all its contents shall be his in exchange for the bracelet." The people present, hearing the words of the ti'amoni, regretted that he off'ered his house and all therein

60 THE 8IA.

for the bracelet, but tliey did not say anything as they thought he knew best. The message being delivered to Po'shaiyanne, he said, " Very well, I will give the bracelet for the house and all it contains." The ti'amoni then called Po'shaiyanne to him and examined the bracelet, and his heart was glad because he was to have the jewels. He then begged Po'shaiyanne to be seated, saying, " We will play the game Wash'kasi.*

In playing the favorite game of Wash'kasi (Fig. 16), forty pebbles form a square, ten pebbles on a side, with a flat stone in the center of the square. Four flat sticks, painted black on one side and unpainted on the other, are held vertically and dropped upon the stone. The ti'amoni threw first. Two black and two unpainted sides faced up. Two of the painted sides being up entitled the player to

TTcL-mo-ni^ l^man9

i

u

o Oi^tt • • o

Pihahgilyin, ^nm^V^mttm

Z/K.

Fig. 16. Tho game of Waah'kMi.

move two stones to the right. Po'shaiyanne then threw, turning up the four painted sides. This entitled him to move ten to the left. The ti'iimoni threw and three painted sides faced up. This entitled him to move thre« stones to the right. Again Po'shaiyanne threw and all the colored sides faced up, entitling him to move ten more. The next throw of the ti'amoni showed two colored sides and he moved two more. Po'shaiyanne threw again, all the colored sides being up; then he moved ten. The ti'amoni then threw and all four unpainted sides turned up; this entitled him to move six. Po'shaiyanne threw and again all the painted sides were up, entitling him to move ten, which brought him to the starting point, and won him the game.

The following morning, after the ti'amoni had eaten, they went into the chita aa usual; Po'shaiyanne, following, took his seat near the entrance, with a blanket wrapped around him. When he approached the ti'amoni to hold the lighted stick to his cigarette, the ti'amoni's astonishment was great to find a second bracelet, of ko-ha-qua,' upon the wrist of Po'shaiyanne. Each bead was large and beautiful. The

• Though it is Dot mentioned in the story, it seems to be understood that these games were played for the houses, for had Po'shaiyftnue lust the games he would have lost the houses 'Ancient flat shell beads as thin as i>aper.

BTEVBisoN.l THE GAME OF WASHKA8I. 61

ti'ainoiii urged Po'shaiyanne not to return to his seat by the ladder, but to sit with them; but he declined, and then a messenger was sent to examine the bracelet, and the man's report excited a great desire in the ti'amoni to secure to himself this second bracelet, and his house in the west, with all that it contained, was offered in exchange for the bracelet. This house was even finer than the one in the north. Po'shaiyanne replied that if the ti'amoni wished the bracelet, he would exchange it for the house in the west. Then he was invited to be seated near the ti'amoni, who placed between them a large bowl containing six 2-inch cubes, which were highly polished and painted on one side. The ti'amoni said to Po'shaiyanne, " Hold the bowl with each hand, and toss up the six cubes. When three painted sides are up the game is won; with only two painted sides up the game is lost. Six painted sides up is equivalent to a march in euchre." Po'shaiyanne replied, "You first, not I. You are the ti'iimoni; I am no one." "No," said the ti^amoni, "you play first;" but Po'shaiyanne refused, and the ti'amoni tossed up the blocks. Only two painted sides were up; Po'shaiyanne, then taking the bowl, tossed the blocks, and all the painted sides turned up. Again the ti'iimoui tried his hand, and three painted sides faced up; then Po'shaiyanne threw and the six painted sides were up. The ti'amoni again threw, turning up two painted sides only; then Po'shaiyanne threw, with his previous success. The ti'amoni threw, and again two painted sides were up. Po'shaiyanne threw, and six painted sides faced up as before, and so a second house went to him. The ti'amoni said, "We will go to our homes and sleep, and return to the chita in the morning, after we have eaten."

The following morning Po'shaiyanne took his seat at the usual place, but the ti'amoni said to him: "Come and sit among us; you are now more than an ordinary man, for you have two houses that belonged to the ti'amoni," but Po'shaiyanne refused and proceeded to light the stick to pass around for the lighting of the cigarettes. When he extended his hand to touch the stick to the cigarettes it was discovered that he wore a most beautiful bracelet, which was red, but not coral. The ti'amoni again sent an emissary to negotiate for the bracelet, offering Po'shaiyanne his house in the south in exchange for the red brace- let. Po'shaiyanne consented and again a game was played. Four circular sticks some 8 inches long, with hollow ends, were stood in line and a blanket thrown over them; the ti'amoni then put a round pebble into the end of one, and removing the blanket asked Po'shaiyanne to choose the stick containing the pebble. "No, my father," said Po'- shaiyiinne, "you first. What am I that 1 should choose before yout" but the ti'amoni replied, "I placed the stone; I know where it is." Then Po'shaiyanne selected a stick and raising it the pebble was visible. Po'shaiyanne then threw the blanket over the sticks and placed the stone in one of them, after which the ti'amoni selected a stick and raised it, but no stone was visible. This was repeated four times. Each

time the ti'amoni failed and Po'shaiyanne succeeded, and again the house in the south went to Po'shaiyanne.

The next day when all had assembled in the chita and Po'shaiyanne advanced to light the cigarettes a bracelet of rare black stone beads was noticed on his wrist. This made the ti'amoni's heart beat with envy and he determined to have the bracelet though he must part with his house in the east; and he offered it in exchange for the bracelet, and Po'shaiyiinne accepted the offer. The ti'amoni then made four little mounds of sand and throwing a blanket over them placed in one a smalh round stone. Then raising the blanket he requested Po^shaiyanne to select the mound in which he had placed the stone. Po'shaiyanne said : " My father, what am I that I should choose before you t " The ti'amoni replied, " I placed the stone and know where it is." Then Po'shaiyanne selected a mound, and the one of his selection contained the stone. The placing of the stone was repeated four times, and each time the ti'amoni failed, and Poshaiyanne was successful; and the hearts of all the people were sad when they knew that this house was gone, but they said nothing, for they believed their ti'amoni knew best. The ti'amoni said: "We will now go to our homes and sleep, and on the morrow? when we have eaten, we will assemble here."

In the morning Po'shaiyanne took his accustomed place, entering after the others. Upon his offering the lighted stick for the cigarettes the i)eople were struck with amazement, for on the wrist of Po'shaiyanne was another bracelet of turkis of marvelous beauty, and when the ti'amoni discovered it his heart grew hungry for it and he sent one of his men to offer his house of the zenith. Po'shaiyanne replied that he would give the bracelet for the house. This house contained many precious things. The ti'amoni requested Po'shaiyanne to come and sit by him ; and they played the game Wash'kasi and, as before, Po'shaiyanne was successful and the house of the zenith fell to him.

The foUowing morning, when the people had assembled in the chita and as Po'shaiyanne passed the stick to light the cigarettes, the ti'amoni and all the people saw upon his wrist another bracelet of large white beads. They were not like the heart of a shell, but white and translucent. The ti^amoni could not resist the wish to have this rare string of beads, and he sent one of his men to offer his house of the nadir for it. When Po'shaiyanne agreed to the exchange, all the people were sad, that the ti'amoni should part with his house, but they said nothing and the ti'amoni was too much pleased with the beautiful treasure to be regretftd. He had Po'shaiyanne come and sit by him and again play the game with the six blocks in the large bowl. The game was played with success on the part of Po^shaiyanne and he became the owner of the sixth house.

On the following day when all were gathered in the chita the ti'amoni said to Po'shaiyanne: "Come and sit with us; surely you are now equal with me, and you are rich indeed, for you have all my houses,"

8T1THWOK.1 MAGIC. 63

but he refused, only passing among ttieargists and people to offer the lighted stick for the cigarettes. When he extended his hand a bracelet was discovered more beautiful than any of the others. It was pink and the stones were very large. The ti'amoni upon seeing it cried, ^'Alas! alas! This is more beautiful and precioas than all the others, but all my houses and treasures are gone. I have nothing left but my i)eople; my old men and old women; young men and maidens and little ones.'' Addressing the people, he said: '^My children, what woald you think of your ti'amoni should he wish to give you to this youth for the beautiful beads t" They replied, <'You are our father and ruler; you are wise and know all things that are best for us;'' but their hearts were heavy and sad, and the ti'amoni hesitated, for his heart was touched with the thought of giving up his ])eople whom he loved ; but the more he thought of the bracelet the greater became his desire to secure it, and he appealed a second time to his people and they answered: ^^ You know best, our father," and the people were very sad, but the heart of the ti'amoni though touched wa« eager to iwssess the bracelet. He sent one of his men to offer in exchange for the bracelet all his people, and Po'shaiysinne replied that he would give the bracelet for the people. Then the ti'amoni called the youth to him, and they repeated the game of the four sticks, hollowed at the ends. Po'shaiyanne was successful, and the ti'amoni said: ^^Take all my i>eople; they are yours; my heart is sad to give them up, and you must be a good father to them. Take all the things I have, I am no longer of any consequence." ^* No," said Po'- shaiyanne; " I will not, for should I do so 1 would lose my iwwer over game." The two remained in the chita and talked for a long time, the ti'amoni addressing Po'shaiyanne as father and Po'shaiyanne calling the ti'amoni father.

After a time Po'shaiyanne determined to visit all the pueblos, and then go into Mexico.

He was recognized by the Sia at once upon his arrival, for they had known of him and sung of him, and they looked for him. He entered the chita in company with the ti'amoni (the one appointed by Ot's^t) and the theurgists. It was not until Po'shaiyanne's visit to the Sia that they possessed the power to capture game. The men were often sent out by the ti'amoni to look for game, but always returned without it, saying they could see the animals and many tracks but could catch none; and their ruler would reply: "Alas! my children, you go for the deer and return without any;" and thus they hunted all over the earth but without success.

After Po'shaiyiinne's talk with the ti'amoni, and learning his wish for game, he said: "Father, what have you for me to do!" And the ti'amoni replied: "My children have looked everywhere for deer, and they can find none; they see many tracks, but they can not catch the deer.'* "Well," replied Po'shaiyanne, "I will go and look for game." He visited a high mountain in the west, from whose summit he could see all over the earth, and looking to the north, he saw on the top of a

great mountain a white deer. The deer was passing toward the south, and he said to himself, "Why can not the Sia catch deer ! " And looking to the west, he saw a yellow antelope on the summit of a high mountain. He, too, was passing to the south, and Po'shaiyanne said to himself, "Why can they not catch antelope f And he looked to the south, and saw on the great mountain of the south a sheep, which was also passing to the south, and he looked to the east, and there, on a high i)eak, he saw the buffalo, who was passing to the south ; and then, looking all over the earth, he saw that it was covered with rabbits, rats, and all kinds of small animals, and that the air was filled with birds of every description. Then, returning to the ti'amoni, he said : "My mother, my father, why do your children say they can catch no game! When I first looked to the mountain of the north I saw the deer, and to the west I saw the antelope, and to the south the mountain sheep, and to the east the buffalo, and the earth and air were filled with animals and birds.'' The ti'amoni inquired how he could see all over the earth. He doubted Po'shaiyanne's word. Then Po'shaiyanne said : "In four days I will go and catch deer for you." " Well," said the ti^amoni, " when you bring the deer I will believe. Until then I must think, perhaps, you do not speak the truth."

For three days the men were busy making bows and arrows, and during these days they observed a strict fast and practiced continency. On the fourth morning at sunrise Po'shaiyanne, accompanied by Ma'asewe and TJyuuyewC, who came to the earth to greet Po'shaiyaune, and the men of the village, started on the hunt. They ate before leaving the village, and after the meal Po'shaiyanne asked : "Are you all ready for the hunt!" And they replied: "Yes; we are ready." Po'- shaiyanne, Ma'asewe, and iTyuuyew^ started in advance of the others, and when some distance ahead Po'shaiyanne made a fire and sprinkled meal to the north, the west, the south, and the east, that the deer might come to him over the roads of meal. He then made a circle of meal, leaving an opening through which the game and hunters might pass, and when this was done all of the men of the village formed into a group a short distance from Po'shaiyanne, who then played on his flute, and, holding it upward, he played first to the north, then west, then south, and then east. The deer came over the four roads to him and entered the great circle of meal. Ma'asewe and iTyuuyewC called to all the people to come and kill the deer. It was now before the middle of the day. There were many deer in the circle, and as the people approached they said one to another: "Perhaps the deer are large; perhaps they are small."

(The deer found by the Sia in this world are quite different from those in the lower world. Those in the lower world did not come to this world ; they are called sits' ta ne, water deer. These deer lived in the water, but they grazed over the mountains. They were very large, with great antlers. The deer in this world are much smaller and have smaller antlers.)

8T»vEN80N.l MIRACLES OF THE 8IA. 65

The circle was eutered at the southeast, Ma'asewe passing around the circle to the left was followed by half of the people, 0yuuyew6 passing to the right around the circle, preceded the remainder. As soon as they had all entered Po'shaiyiinne closed the oi)ening; he did not go into the circle but stood by the entrance. The deer were giailually gathered into a close group and were then shot with arrows. When all the deer had been killed they were flayed^ and the tlesh and skins carried to the village. As they passed from the circle Po'shaiyanne said, " Now carry your meat home. Give your largest deer to the ti'amoni and the smaUer ones to the people of your houses." After the Sia had started for their village Po'shaiyiinne destroyed the circle of meal and then returned to the ti'amoni, who said : " You, indeed, spoke the truth, for my people have brought many deer, and I am much pleased. On the morrow we will kill rabbits." The ti'iinloni informed the coyote of his wish for the rabbits, and in the morning a large fire was made, and the coyote spoke to the fire, saying: "We desire many rabbits but we do not wish to go far." He then threw meal to the cardinal points, zenith, and nadir, and prayed that the sun father would cause the small and large rabbits to gather together that they might not have to go a great distance to find them, for as he, the father, wished, so it would be, and Ma'asewe and the coyote sat down while the people gathered around the fire and passed their rabbit sticks through the fiames. Then Ma^asewe directed them to start on the hunt. They formed into an extensive circle surrounding the rabbits, and a great number were secured. Some were killed by being struck immediately over their hearts. It was very late when the people returned to the village laden with rabbits.

The ti'timoni said : " Day after to-morrow we will have a feast." Po'shaiyiinne agreeing, said: "It is well, father." All the women worked hard for the feast. Half of their number worked for the ti'amoni and half for Po'shaiyiinne. The ti'iimoni going alone to the house of Po'shaiyiinne, said: "Listen: to-morrow you will have the great feast at your house." Po'shaiytinne replied: "No, father; you are the elder, and you must have it at your house." The ti'amoni answered: "Very well, my house is good and large; I will have it there."

In the morning, when the sun was still new, the ti'amoni had the feast spread — bowls of mush, bread, and meat; and he said to Po'shaiyanne, who was present: "Father, if y<m have food bring it to my house and we will have our feast together." Po'shaiyanne replied : " It IS well, father;" and, to the astonishment of all, Po'shaiyiinne's food immediately appeared. It was spread on tables;* the bowls holding the food being very beautiful, such as had never before been seen. The ti'amoni told Ma'asewe to bid the people come to the feast; and aU, including the most aged men and women and youngest children, were present. Upon entering the house they were sur])rised with the things

*Thi9 reference to tables appears to evidence the fact that this portion of the cosmogony is of later date, and the whole paragraph savors of a coloring from Christian or biblical teaching.

11 ETH 5

66 THE 8IA.

they saw on Po'shaiyanne's table, and all who could went to his table in preference to sitting before the ti'amonl's. Even the water upon Po'shaiyanne's table was far better than that furnished by the ti'amoni ; and those who drank of this water and ate Po'shaiyanne's food immediately became changed, their skins becoming whiter than before; but all could not eat from Po^shaiyanne's board and many had to take the food of the ti'iimoni, and they remained in appearance as before.

After this feast, Po'shaiyanne visited all the pueblos and then passed on to Chihuahua in Mexico. Before Po'shaiyanne left the Sia, he said to them: "I leave you, but another day I will return to you, for this village is mine for all time, and I will return first to this village." To the ti'amoni he said : "Father, you are a ti'amoni, and I also am one; we are as brothers. All the people, the men, the women, and the children are mine, and they are yours; and I will return to them again. Watch for me. I will return;" and he added, " In a short time another i)eople will come; but before that time, such time as you may choose, I wish you to leave this village, for my heart is here and it is not well for another people to come here; therefore depart ft*om this village before they come near."

Upon entering the plaza in Chihuahua Po'shaiyanne met the great chief, who invited him to his home, where he became acquainted with his daughter. She was very beautiful, and Po'shaiyanne told the chief that he was much pleased with his daughter and wished to make her his wife. The chief replied : " If you desire to marry my daughter and she wishes to marry you, it is well." Upon the father questioning the daughter the girl replied in the affirmative. Then the father and mother talked much to the daughter and said : " To-morrow you will be married." The chief sent one of his officials to let it be known to all the people that Po'shaiyanne and his daughter were to be united in marriage in the morning, and many assembled, and there was a great feast in the house of the chief. Many men were pleased with the chiefs daughter, and looked with envy upon Po'shaiyanne; and they talked together of killing him, and finally warriors came to the house of Po'shaiyanne and carried him off to their camp and pierced his heart with a si>ear, and his enemies were contented, but the wife and her father were sad. The day after Po'shaiyanne's death he returned to his wife's home, and when he was seen alive those who had tried to destroy him were not only angry but much alarmed; and again he was captured, and they bound gold and silver to his feet, that after casting him into the lake his body should not rise; but a white fluffy feather of the eagle fell to him, and as he touched the feather the feather rose, and Po^shaiyiinne with it, and he lived again, and he still lives, and some time he will come to us. So say the Sia. Po'shaiyanne's name is held in the greatest reverence; in fact, he is regarded as their culture hero*,

• The cnltnre hero of the Sia hears a name similar to that of the correeponding prodigy among the Za&l. The same is true of other of their mjrthological beinga.

8TBVDi»0!f.l MYTHOLOGY. 67

and he is appealed to in daily prayers, and the people have no doubt of his return. They say: "He may come to-day, to-morrow, or perhaps not in our lifetime.''

Soon after Po'shaiyanne's departure from Sia the ti'amoni decided to leave his present village, though it pained him much to give up his beautiful house. And they moved and built the present pueblo of Sia, which village was very extensive. The ti^amoni had tirst a square of stone laid, which is to be seen at the present day, euibleniutic^ of the heart of the village (for a heart must be, before a thing can exist). After the building of this village the aged ti'amoni continued to live many years, and at his death he was buried in the ground, in a rechniug position. His head was covered with raw cotton, with an eagle plume attached; his face was painted with corn x)ollen, and cotton was placed at the soles of his fC/Ct and laid over the heart. A bowl of food was deposited in the grave, and many hiiVhamoni were plantinl over the road to the north, the one which is traveled after death. A bowl of food was also placed on the road. All night they sang and [)rayed in the house of the departed ti'iimoni, and early in the morning all those who sung were bathed in suds of yucca made of cold water.

There are two rudely carved stone animals at the ruined village supposed to have been visited by Po'shaiyanne. These the Sia always speak of as the cougar, but they say, " In reality they are not the cougar, but the lynx, for the cougar remained at the white-house in the north."

This cosmogony exhibits a chapter of the Sia philosophy, and though this philosophy is fraught with absurdities and contriulictions, as is the case with all aboriginal reasoning, it scintillates with poetic conceptions. They continue :

"The hour is too solemn for si)oken words; a new life is to be given to us."

Theirs is not a religion mainly of propitiation, but rather of supplication for favors and payment for the same, and to do the will of and thereby please the beings to whom they pray. It is the paramount occupation of their life; all other desirable things come through its practice. It is the foundation of their moral and social laws. Children are taught from infancy that in order to please the pantheon of their mythical beings they must speak with one tongue as straight as the line of prayer over which these beings pass to enter the images of themselves.

It will be underst(X)d from the cosmogony that the Sia did not derive their clan names from animal ancestors^ nor do they believe that their people evolved from animals, other than the Sia themselves. The Zuiii hold a similar belief. The Zuiii's reference to the tortoise and other animals as ancestors is explained in the "Keligious Life of the Zufii Child." '

I am of opinion that closer investigation of the North American In-

Fifth Ann. Rept. Ba. Eth., pp. 539-658.

dian will reveal that the belief in the descent of a people from beasts, plants, or heavenly bodies is not common, though their mythological heroes were frequently the offspring of the union of some mortal with the sun or other object of reverence. There is no mystery in such unions in thephilosophy of the Indian, for, as notonly animate butinaninateobjects and the elements are endowed with personality, such beings are not only brothers to one another, but hold the same kinship to the Sia, from the fact, according to their philosophy, that all are living beings and, therefore, all are brothers. This is as clearly defined in the Indian mind as our recognition of the African as a brother man.

The spider is an important actor in Sia, Zuiii, and Tusayan mythology. Sia cosmogony tells us the spider was the primus, the creator of all. S&s'slstinnako is referred to as a man, or, more properly, a being possessing all power; and as S^s'sTstinnako created first man and then other beings to serve his first creation, these beings, although endowed with attributes superior to man in order to serve him, can hardly be termed gods, but rather agents to execute the will of S^s'slstinnako in serving the people of his first creation.

SCls'sIstinnako must be supplicated through the mediator t^ts^t, who is present at such times in the fetich I'arriko. Ko'shairi and Quer'ranna appear for the sun and moon. The war heroes and the warriors of the six mountains of the world, the women of the cardinal points, and animals, insects^ and birds holding the secrets of medicine, are present, when invoked, in images of themselves. The Sia can not be said to practice ancestor worship. While the road to Shipapo (entrance to the lower world) is crowded with spirits of peoples returning to the lower world, and spirits of unborn infants coming from the lower world, the Sia do not believe in the return of ancestors when once they have entered Shipapo. While many of the kokko (personated by persons wearing masks) are the immediate ancestors of the Zuni, the Ka'^suna of the Sia, also personated by men and women wearing masks, are altogether a distinct creation, and can not be considered to bear any relation to ancestor worship.

The Sia, however, have something as appalling to them as the return of the dead, in their belief in witchcraft, those possessing this craft being able to assume the form of dogs and other beasts; and they are ever on the alert when traveling about on dark nights, especially if the traveler is a man of wealth, as witches are always envious of the financial success of others. They create disease by casting into the body snakes, worms, stones, bits of &bric, etc. Hair must be burned that it may not be found by wizards or witches, who, combining it with other things, would cast it into the person from whose head it was cut, causing illness and perhaps death. There is, however, a x)anacea for such afflictions in the esoteric x>ower of the theurgists of the secret cult societies. A man was relieved of pain in the chest by a snake being drawn from the body by an eminent theurgist daring the stay of the

8TEVE.N80N.1 CULT SOCIETIES. 69

writer at Sia. Such is tho effect of faith (*nre in Sia that, thongh the mtui was actually suffering from a severe c^>ld, his impn)vement dated from the hour the siuiko was supposcnl to have's been extracted.

CULT SOCIETIES.

Ct'sf^t, being directed in all things by Sils'slstinnako, originated the cult societies of tho lower worhi, giving to certain of them the secrets for the healing of the sick.

The societies are mentioned in their line of succession, most of them having been named for the animals of which they were comiK)sed.

The tlrst society organized was the Ka'plna, which included only the spider ])eople, its ho'-na-ai-te, * or tlieurgist, being Sus'slstinnako himself; and as the members of this society were directly associated with Sfis'sTstinnako, they knew his nu^dicine secrets.

Then followed the societie^s of the bear, cougar, badger, wolf, and shrew {Sorex).

The hTs'tiiin ' (knife) was composed of the c<mgar and the bear, these two societies being consolidated. Sus'slstinnako finding that the bear was always dissatistietl and inclined to growl and nin from the x)eople when they approached, dei'ided to make the cougar first and the bear second, giving as hisreason that when tlie peoi)ledrew near the cougar he sat still and looked at them ; he neither growled nor ran, and the X)eople were not afraid; he commanded their respect, but not their fear, and for this reason Sus'slstinnako united these societies that the bear might be sc<?ond, and under the direction of the cougar.

The next six societies organized were the snakes, composed of the snakes of the cardinal {mints, the snake of the north being Ska'towe (Plumed Serj)cnt), the west Ka'spanna, the south Ko'quaira, the east Quls'si^ra, the heavens llu'waka, the earth Ya'ai. The Ska'towe (Serpent of the North) and Ko'quaira (Seri)ent of the South) having special infiuence over the cloud i>eople, have their bo<lies marked with cloud emblems; thcKa'spanna (Serpent of the West) and theQuIs'sCra (Serpent of the East) hold esoterics relations with the sun and moon; hence their bodies are painted with the crescent, llu'waka (Serpent of the Heavens) has a body like crystal, and it is so brilliant that one's eyes can not rest upon him; he is very closely allied to the sun. The Ya'ai (Serpent of the Karth) has special relati<ms with Ila'arts (the earth). His body is spotted over like the earth, and he passes about over Ha'arts until someone approaches, when he hastens into his house in the earth.

The seven ant societies followed the snakes. The five animal societies, the six snake societies, the first three ant societies, and the

• PreHidiiig officer of a cult Hooioty.

'This society ditlVrtMl from tlio one of tlio saTni* Dame afterwardH orgaDize<l in tho upper world; knife in the former roforring to t\u- implement um(m1 for domestic and other purponcH, while the word in the latter iudirjitoH the arrows presented to Ma'asewe and U'yuuyowfi, the two war heroes, sons of the sun, by their father.

society of tlio eagle were given the secrets of th« mAili^ino f^r T^or^Vnr'

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ll

.M ■

■ I hr }.'je !v> Ut

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O) o O -} O I

BTEVBwoii.) THE CULT SOCIETIES. 71

Ko'shairi received directly from the sun valuable medicine for rain, and so the songs of the Ko'shairi are principally invocations for rain to fructify the earth.

Qner'ninna's office is similar to that of the Ko'shairi, though his dress is different, as he comes from the house of the m(M)n and not the sun. Besides the songs for rain tht*. sun gave him the secret of the medicine, which would not only make ha'arts but women pregnant.

After the Sia, animals and Ka'*suna entered this world, they b(Mng led by the mother tTt'sCt, the Ka"suna were directed by Ct'sCt to go to the west and there make their homes. Before their departure, however, masks were made to represent them. Ct'sCt sent Ko'shairi and Quer'ranna to the east, telling the former to make his home near the house of the sun and the latter to make his house a little to the north of the sun's. It willl)e remembered that SOs'sIstinnako sent the sun to this world before the advent of the Sia. Ko'shairi i>erf()rms not only the office of courier between the sun and Ka'^suna, but is also mediator l>etween the Sia and the sun. (See PI. x.)

Upon the departure of Ko'shairi and Quer'riinna, tTt'sCt organized two orders bearing their names, to wait upon the personators of the Ka'^suna whenever tliey should appear. The representatives of Koshai'ri and Quer'rjinna are supposed to be the exact reproductions of the originals. The body of Ko'shairi is painted white and striped in black; that of Quer'rtinna is half yellow and half white, dotted with bla<3k crescents. Thus we see stripes and ])articolors as indicative of the harlequin is of j)rehistoric origin. The hair of Ko'shairi is brought to the front and tied with painted black and white corn husks. The breech cloth is black cotton (PI. xA). Quer'ninna's hair is brought forward and tied to stand erect (PI. x B).

Whenever the Ka'^suna appear in Sia they are attended by the Ko'shairi and Quer'riinna, they waiting upon the Ka^suna, adjusting any of their wearing ai)parel which becomes disarranged, etc. They also play the fool, their buffoonery causing great merriment among the spectators.

After ridding the world of the destroyers of the peoi)le, Ma'asewe said 10 the ti'iimoni of Sia (the Sia were still living at the white house), ">iow that I have killed the bad people of the world it is well to organize societies similar to those instituted by tTt'sft in the lower world, and learn from the animals the secrets of medicine.'' It must be understood tliat all the animals were not bad.

The first society originated by Ma'asewe was the Hls'tiJin or Knife. This society being first, because it was through the power of the knives or arrows given to the boys by the sun father that the enemies were destroyed; Ills'tiiin, in this case, meaning the knife or arrow of lightning.

The next society originated was that of the cougar, then followed the societies of the bear, the skoyo (giant), the snake, and the ant. The

72 THE SU.

ho'naaite of each society was fornished with medicine by the two warriors, this medicine being bits of the hearts of the enemies destroyed ; a portion of each heart being given to each ho'naaite.

Ma'asewe then organized the Ope Society (Warriors), designating himself as the ho'naaite^ of the society and liis brother as its vicar. He then appointed six men members of the society, to reside for all time in the six high mountains of the world, that they might look from the six cardinal points and discover bad people, and inform the Sia of an approaching enemy. These six men, in conjunction with Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewfi, guide the arrows of the Sia when contending with the enemy. It will be remembered it was stated in the ^^Sia Cosmogony" that Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewfi went to reside in the interior of the Sandia mountain.

When these societies had been formed, the animal societies assembled at the white house and taught the ho'naaites their medicine songs; previous to this, when the Sia were ill, they received their medicine direct from the animals, the animals officiating and singing. After instructing the Sia in their songs, they told them to make stone images of themselves, that passing over the i*oad of meal they might enter these images; and so the Indians are sure of the presence of the animals. The beings pass over the line of meal, entering the fetiches, where they remain until the close of a ceremonial, and then depart over the line.

The secret of the fire was not brought to this world, and the fire society was originated here in this way. The people grew tired of feed- ing about on grass, like the deer and other animals, and they consulted together as to how fire might be obtained. It was finally decided by the ti'amoni that a coyote was the best person to steal the fire from the world below, and he dispatched a messenger for the coyote. Upon making his appearance the ti'amoni told of the wish of himself and his peo- ple for fire, and that he wanted him to return to the world below and bring the fire, and the coyote replied, "It is well, father; I will go." Ul)on reaching the first entrance of the house of S^s'slstinnako (it was the middle of the night), the coyote found the snake who guarded the door asleep, and he quickly and quietly slipped by; the cougar who guarded the second door was also asleep, and the bear who guarded the third door was sleeping. Upon reaching the fourth door he found the ho'naaite of the fire asleep, and, slipping through, he entered the room and found Siis'slstinnako also soundly sleeping; he hastened to the

1 The ho'Daaite, in this iDHtaiice, is not, Htrictly speaking, the theurgist, for the priest-doctor of the society of wanion practices surgery exolosively, such as extracting balhi and arrows, while the thenrgist has to deal with afflictions caused hy witchcraft and the anger of certain animals auil insects, he acting simply as the agent of the prey animals. The functions of the ho'naaitos of the Koshai'ri and Quer'riinna also differ from those of the other societies. As thMe two societies received their songs and medicine directly from the sun, they are not entitled to the slat altars used in ceremonials and given hy Ct's<^t to the societies in the lower world ; only those bo'naaites who practice through the power of the prey animals possess the sand paintings. The Warriors, Koshai'ri and Quer'riluna, make their cloud emblems of meal.

BPrivBfBOH.l THEURGISTIC RITES. 73

fire, and, ligbtiDg the cedar brand which was attached to his tail, hnrried ont. SCls'sIstiimako awoke, rubbing his eyes, just in time to be con- scious that some one was leaving the room. " Who is there f he cried ; " some one has be^n here," bift before he could arouse those who guarded the entrance the coyote wajs far on his way to the upper world. After the organization of the cult societies the ti'simoni, intluenced by Ct's^t, commanded the cougar to make his home. for all time in the north; the bear was likewise sent to the wcvst, the badger to the south, the wolf to the east, the eagle to the heavens, and the shrew to the earth.

THEURGISTIC RITES.

It is only upon acquaintance with the secret cult societies that one may glean something of the Indians' conception of disease, its cause and cure. It is supposed to be i)rodaced almost wholly through one or two agencies — the occult powers of wizards and witches, and the anger of certain animals, often Insects. Therefore, though some plant medicines are known to these Indians, their materia medica may be said to be purely fetichistic; for when anything of a medicinal character is used by the theurgist it must be supplemented with fetich medicine and magical cratt.

While there are thirteen secret cult societies with the Zuni, there are but eight ill Sia, some of these being reduced to a membership of two, and in one instance to one. While the Zuni and Sia each has its society of warriors, the functions of these societies are somewhat different.

The cult societies of the Sia, as well as those of Zuni, have their altars and sand paintings; but while each Zuni altar, with its medicines and fetiches, is guarded during ceremonials by two members of the Society of Warriors, this entitling the members of this society to be present at the meetings of all the cult societies, tlie Sia have no such customs. Their altars and fetiches are not protected by others than the theurgists and vice-theurgists of their resi)ective societies. At the present time, owing to the depleted numbers of the Society of Warriors of the Zuni, some of their altars have but one guardian.

The Society of Warriors has for its director and vicar, like the Zuiii and the other puc^dos, the representatives of the mythologic war heroes, who, though small in stature, are invuhierable. ** Their hearts are large, for they have the heart of the sun." The head or director of a society is termed the cider brother ; the vicar, younger brother.

When the cult societies invoke the cloud people to water the earth, the presence of certain anthropomorphic and zoomorphic beings having l)otent influence over the cloud people is tussured by the drawing of a line of meal from the altar to the entrance of the ceremonial chamber,

74 THE

over which these beings pass, temj of themselves which stand before th to use their mystic powers with thi earth, that she may become pregnai (the earth) the fruits of her being.

In order to obtain their service ha'chamoni (notched stick), which i invariably has plumes attached to i compensation for that which is d< among which are gaming blocks, 1 upon, and cigarettes filled with the d and bits of precious beads. (See I

Eagles are kept caged, and turke; of obtaining plumes for these ofterii

It is the prerogative of the ti'i . meetings of the cult societies, exce] the sick by the request of the pat being entirely under the jurisdicti possess within himself the power • acting under the influence of those
images.

The gala time is the beginning of the cult societies hold synchronal period of four days and nights, at
prepared; and those possessing re; the chamber of the society of whicl urgists and their followers elaborate their subjects.

The cult societies have two ways members. An adult or child joins hesilth by a theurgist, and a parent a boy or gii*l having arrived at yea sire to join a society.

In the case of a young child the upon the theurgist and, making kn handful of shell mixture,* saying, " ber of your society that his mind i case of an elder boy or girl the clan then calls upon the theurgist and, shell mixture, makes known his wisl

Most of the societies are divided important order being that in whic the anagogics of medicine, except in

• The sacred meal, or shell mixture as it is often c. either sex; it is composed of coarsely ground meal, p-

BTKvmwoif.) THEURGISTIC RITES. 75

order is essential. One must pass through three degrees before being permitted to handle the snakes. In the case of minors they can not be initiated into the third degree until, in the ho'naaite^s judgment, they are amenable to the rigid rules. A person may belong to two or more of these societies.

Women may be members of the various orders, excepting in the societies of the Snake, Cougar, or Hunters and Warriors. The Snake division of the Snake Society has no female members, and the societies of the Cougar or Hunters and Warriors are comi)osed entirely of men. When one makes known his desire to enter a society he states to the theurgist which division he wishes to join.

The objection to handling the snakes keeps the Snake division of this society limited, though the honor is much greater in belonging to this division. Upon entering the medicine order of any society the new member is presented with the fetitth ya'ya by the theurgist, who must practice continency four days previous to preparing the fetich.

The cult societies observe two modes in curing disease: One is by sucking, and the other by brushing the body with straws and eagle plumes. The former mode is practiced when Ka-nat-kai-ya (witches) have caused the malady by casting into the body worms, stones, yarn, etc. ; the latter mode is observed when one is afUicted through angry ants or other insects, which are thus drawn to the surface and brushed off.

Tiie medicine ceremonials of the cult societies are quite distinct from their ceremonials for rain.

The only compensation made the theurgist for his practice upon invalids either in the ceremonial chamber or dwelling is the sacred shell mixture. It is quite the reverse with all other Indians with whom the writer is acquainted. The healing of the sick in the ceremonial chamber is with scmie of the peublos gratuitous, but generous compensation is reciuired when the theurgist visits the house of the invalid.

Continency is observed four days previous to a ceremonial, and an emetic is taken each morning for purification from conjugal relations. On the fourth day the married members bathe (the men going into the river) and have their heads washed in yucca suds. This is for physical purification. The exempting of those who have not been married and those who have lost a spouse seems a strange and unreasonable edict in a community where there is an indiscriminate living together of the people.

The ceremonials here noted occurred after the planting of the grain. Several of the ordinances had been held previous to the arrival of the writer. She collected sufficient data, however, to demonstrate the analogy between the rain ceremonials of the secret cult societies, their songs bearing the one burden — supplication for rain.

Bureau of Ethnology.

Eleventh Annual Report. PlateXII

HA.'- CHA-MO-NI before plume OFFERtKOS ARE ATTACHED.

76 THE 8IA.

BAIN CEREMONIAL OF THE SNAKE SOOIETY.

The morning was spent by the ho'naaite (theurgist) and his vicar in the preparation of ha'chamoni^ and plume offerings. The ha'chamoni are symbolic of the beings to whom they are offered, the mes- sages or prayers being conveyed through the notches upon the sticks. These symbols frequently have h^r'rotuma (more slender sticks representing the official staff) bound to them with threads of yucca; Pis. XI and XII show an incomplete set of ha'chamoni before the plume offerings are appended, which the Snake Society deposits when rain is desired; PL xiii, specimens of ha'chamoni with plume offerings attached.

About 4 o'clock p. m. the ho'naaite and his younger brother were joined by the third member of the society, when the ho'naaite began the sand painting,^ the first one being laid immediately before the ii'^chin (slat altar), which had been erected earlier in the day, and the second in front of the former (PL xiv).

Upon the completion of the paintings the ho'naaite deposited several long buckskin sacks upon the floor and the three proceeded to remove such articles as were to be placed before the altar. There were six ya'ya, four of these being the property of the ho'naaite, two having come to him through the Snake Society, and two through the Spider, he being also ho'naaite of the Spider Society, the others belonging to the vice ho'naaite and third member of the Snake Society.

The ya'ya are most carefully preserved, not only on account of their sacred value, but also of their intrinsic worth, as the parrot plumes of which they are partially composed are very costly and difficult to obtain, they being procured from other Indians, who either make journeys into Mexico and trade tor these plumes with the Indians of that country, or the Indians on the border secure them and bring them for traffic among their more northern brothers.

The ya'ya are wrapped first with a piece of soft cloth, then with buckskin, and finally with another cloth; slender splints are placed around this outer covering and a long buckskin string secures the packages.

After unwrapping the ya'ya the ho'naaite proceeds to arrange the fetiches. Three of the ya'ya are placed immediately in front of the altar upon a paralellogram of meal, which is always drawn at the base of the altars, and is emblematic of seats for the ya'ya. An image, 8

1 A member of a society is selei^ted by the ho'naaite to collect the willow twigs from which tho h&'chamoni are made. The ho'naaite arranges a banch of bird plumes which tho collector attaches to the limb of a willow, saying: " I have come to collei't twigs for hii'chamoni and I pay you with these plumes." The tree to which tho plumes are attached is not touched, but the one nearest to it. A stroke at the place where the twig is to be cut is made with an ancient stone knife and the twig is severed from the tree on a lino at right angles with itself, the stick varying from four inches to a foot in length, according to the symmetry of the twig, which is divided by three cuts (these having first been indicated by the stone knife), leaving the selected portion with a pointed end which in cross section would show an equilateral triangle.

'The Sia do not differ fh)m the ZuQi, Tusayan, and Nav^o in their process of preparing sand ]>aintings, the powdered pigment being sprinkled between the index finger and thumb. All these Indian artists work rapidly.

5i;r>>''i.- ■ '^if.'^oloiy

jM

yiiw«Mi<i<<

'-»'"■''■-"

78 THE SI A.

hangs over the north post of the altar. The ho'naaite wear this nec^klace in the evening ceremony. The sacred honey jug (a gourd) and basket containing the sacred meal, a shell filled with com pollen, a buckskin medicine bag, an arrow point, and an ancient square pottery bowl are grouped in front of the snake fetich on the north side of the altar, and to the north of this group are other medicine bags and turkey feather wands, with bunches of fluffy eagle plumes, tipped black and the other portion dyed a beautiful lemon color, attached to them with cotton cord. These wands are afterwards held by the women, who form the line at night on the north side of the room. A Tusayan basket, containing the offerings, consisting of ha^chamoni, each one being tipped with a bit of raw cotton and a single plume from the wing of a humming bird, with plumes attached upright at the base; Hfir'rotume (staffs) ornamented with plumes, Ta^-wa-ka (gaming blocks and rings for the clouds to ride upon), Maic'-kftr-i-wa-pai (bunches of plumes of birds of the cardinal points, zenith and nadir), is deposited in front of the snake fetich on the south side of the altar, and beyond this basket are similar wands to those north of the altar, which are carried in the ceremonial by the women on the south side of the room. Five stone knives complete the group. A white stone bear, 12 inches long, is placed in front of the whole, and a parrot is attached to the top of the central-slat figure. (PL xv) Unfortunately, the flash-light photograph of the altiir of the Snake Society made during the ceremonial failed to develop well, and, guarding against i)ossible failure, the writer succeeded in having the ho'naaite arrange the altar at another time. The fear of discovery induced such haste that the fetiches, which are kept carefully stored away in different houses, were not all brought out on this occasion.*

When the altar is completed the ho^naaite and his associates stand before it and supplicate the presence of the pai'atamo and Ko'pishtaia, who are here represented by images of themselves, these images becoming the abiding places of the beings invoked. After the prayer, the ho'naaite and his vicar sit upon their folded blankets near the fireplace, where a low fire burns, and with a supply of tobacco and corn husks content themselves with cigarettes until the opening of the evening ceremony.

By 9 o'clock the Snake society was joined in the chai-an-ni-kai (ceremonial chamber) archaic, Su'*-86r-ra-kai by the Kaplna, it being the prerogative of the h6naaite of one organization to invite other societies to take part in his ceremonies. They formed in line, sitting back of the altar; the hdnaaite being in the rear of the central slat figure, which symbolized the h6naaite of the cult society of the cloud, people. The other members were seated in the rear, as near as could be, of

• The uncolored illustrations are from photographs hy Miss May S. Clark, the interior views being by flash light. The writer is pleased to congratulate Miss Clurk for having succeeded under the most trying circumstances.

Bureau of Ethnology.

Eleventti Annual Report Plate Xlji

hA'-cha-mo-ni with plumes attached .

BTEYwitoii.l RAIN CEREMONIAL. 79

the corresponding symbolic figures of the cloud and lightning people. A boy of 8 years of age, who lay sleeping as the writer entered the room, was aroused to take his position in the line, and a boy of 4 years, who had been sleeping upon a sheepskin, spread on the floor between two of the women, was led from the room by one of them, as he had not entered the degree when he might hear the songs and see the making of the medicine water.

The women formed right angles with the line of men, four sitting on the north side of the room and four on the south side. The elder female member sat at the west end of the line on the north side of the room. The men wore breechcloths of white cotton; the h6naaite and the ti'amoni wore embroidered Tusayan kilts for breechcloths. The hair was done up as usual, but no headkerchief was worn. The boy and men held oh'-shi-ekats (gourd rattles) in their right hands and hi'-shji-mi (two eagle plumes) in the left.

The women were attired in their black wool dresses, the calico gown being discarded, and red sashes, wearing the conventional cue and bang. The neck and arms were exposed and the feet and lower limbs were bare. Each woman held two wands of turkey plumes in the right hand, and both men and women wore numerous strings of coral and kohaqna beads with bunches of turkis (properly earrings) attached pendent to the necklaces.

The ceremonial opened with the rattle and song, the women accompanying the men in the song. After a short stanza, which closed, as all the stanzas do, with a rapid manipulation of the rattle, the second stanza was almost immediately begun, when the vicar (PL xvn) standing before the altar shook his rattle for a moment and then waved it in a circle over the altar. lie repeated this motion six times, for the cardinal points, and returned to his seat before the closing of the stanza. The circle indicated that all the cloud people of the world were invoked to water the earth.

On the opening of the third stanza all arose and the h6naaite reaching over the altar took a yaya in either hand, he having previously laid his rattle and eagle plumes by the altar. This stanza was sung with great vivacity by the men, who swayed their bodies to the right and left in rhythmical motion, while the women waved their wands monotonously. The movement of the arms of both the men and women was from the elbow, the upper arms being apparently pinioned to the sides; there was no raising of the feet, but simply the bending of the knees.

At the close of the stanza, which continued thirty minutes, the hdnaaite gave a weird call for the cloud people to gather; all, at the same instant, drew a breath from their plumes and took their seats. A woman then brought a vase of water and gourd from the northeast corner of the room and placed it in front of the altar. (PI. xvi.) In a moment the song was resumed, and the ydni-^si-wittaiii (maker of medicine

) THEIJR0I8TIC RITES. 75

order is essentia). One must pass through three degrees before being permitted to handle the snakes. In the case of minors they can not be initiated into the third degree until, in the ho'naaite's judgment, they are amenable to the rigid rules. A person may belong to two or more of these societies.

Women may be members of the vari(ms orders, excepting in the societies of the Snake, ('ougar, or Hunters and Warriors. The Snake division of the Snake Society has no female members, and the societies of the Cougar or Hunters and Warriors are composed entirely of men. When one makes known his desire to enter a society he states to the theurgist which divisicm he wishes to join.

The obje<»tion to handling the snakes keeps the Snake division of this society limited, though the honor is much ijreater in belonging to this division. Uj)on entering the medicine order of any society the new member is presented with the fetich ya'ya by the theurgist, who must practice continency four days previous to preparing the fetich.

The cult societies observe two modes in curing disease: One is by sacking, and the other by brushing the body with straws and eagle plumes. The former nioile is ])racticed when Ka-nat-kai-ya (witches) have caused the malady by casting into the body worms, stones, yarn, etc.; the latter mode is observed when one is afflicted through angry ants or other insects, which are thus drawn to the surface and brushed off.

The medicine ceremonials of the cult societies are quite distinct from their ceremonials for rain.

The only compensation made the theurgist for his practice upon invalids either in the ceremonial chamber or dwelling is the sacred shell mixture. It is (juite the reverse with all othcT Indians with whom the writer is acquainted. The healing of the sick in the ceremonial chamber is with some of the peublos gratuitous, but generous compensation is re4iuired when the theurgist visits the house of the invalid.

Continency is observed four days previous to a ceremonial, and an emetic is taken ea<h morning for i)uritication from conjugal relations. On the fourth day the married mcMiibers bathe (the men going into the river) and have their heads washed in yucca suds. This is for i)hysical purifi(!ation. The exempting of those who have not been married and those who have lost a spouse seems a strange and unreasonable edict in a community where there is an indiscriminate living together of the people.

The ceremonials here notcMl occurred after the planting of the grain. Several of the ordinances had been held previous to the airival of the writt*r. She collected sutlicient data, however, to demonstrate the analogy between the rain ceremonials of the secret cult societies, their songs bearing the one burden — supplication for rain.

8iasin than the men in this particular feature of the ceremony. The cry, which was repeated four times, was an invocation to the cloud rulers of the cardinal points to water the earth, and, with each cry, meal was sprinkled into the medicine bowl, each member being provided with a small buckskin bag of meal or com pollen, which had been previously taken from a bear-leg skin, and laid beside the altar. The members of the Snake Division sprinkled corn pollen instead of meal, the pollen being especially acceptable to the Snake h6naaite, to whom many of their prayers are addressed.

The preparation of the medicine water began with the opening of the seventh stanza. The ya'ni^siwittanui danced before the altar, keeping south of the line of meal, and holding six pebble fetiches in either hand, which he had taken from two small sacks drawn from one of the bear-leg skins. He did not sing, but he kept time with the choir. Extending his right hand toward the altar, he touched the two front ya'ya, and then, placing his hands together, he again extended them, and, drawing closer still to the altar, he dropped a fetich from his right hand into the medicine bowl with a weird cry to the Snake ho'naaite of the north to invoke the cloud ruler of the north to send his people to water the earth; and after raising his hands above his head he again extended them toward the altar, and, leaning forward, dropped a fetich from his left hand into the cloud bowl. This was repeated four times with each bowl, with petitions to the Snake ho^naaites of the north, the west, the south, and the east to intercede with the cloud rulers to send their people to water the earth. Then, taking two large stone knives from before the altar, he struck them together, and, passing from the south of the line of Dieal to the north, he again brought the knives together. Recrossing the line of meal, he dipped the knives into the bowl of medicine water and sprinkled the altar; then, passing to the north of the line, he dipped the knives into the medicine water and repeated the sprinkling of the altar four times ; again, standing south of the line, he dipped the knives into the water, throwing it to the east, and, crossing the line, dipped them into the bowl and repeated the motion to the ejist, and resumed his seat at the south end of the line of men. The ho^naaite then leaned over the altar, and, dipping his plumes into the medicine bowl, sprinkled the altar four times by striking the plumes on the top with the rattle held in the right hand. The song, which had continued for an hour without cessation, now closed, and the men gathered around the tobacco which lay near the tire-place, and, making cigarettes, returned to their seats and smoked. The boy ignited the fire-stick and held it for the men to light their cigarettes. lie passed it first to the man at the north of the line. As each man took the first whiff of his cigarette he blew the smoke toward the altar and waved the cigarette in a circle as he extended it to the altar. After the smoke the song and rattle again resounded through the room, and at the close of a short stanza the man at the north end of the line cried out in a high tone and the women 11 ETH 6

gathered before the altar, and each, taking a pinch of meal from the meal bowl, sprinkled the altar and returned to their seats. The ya'ni- ^siwittiinfii lifted the shell of pollen from before the altar, and, passing to the entrance and opening the door, waved his rattle along the line of meal and out of the door. After repeating the waving of the rattle he passed his hand over the line and threw out the pollen from his fingers, as offering to the Snake ho'naaite. Returning to the altar, he stood while the ho'naaite dipped his plumes into the medicine water and sprinkled the altar by striking the plumes with the rattle. After the ya'ni^siwittanni and ho'naaite had returned to the line, the cloudmaker (a member of the Spider Society), who sat at the north end, crossed the line of meal, and, holding his eagle plumes and rattle in his left hand, lifted with his right the reed which lay across the cloud bowl, and, transferring it to his left, he held it and the plumes vertically while he prayed. The vice ho'naaite dipped ashes from the fire-place with his eagle plumes, holding one in either hand, sprinkled the cloudmaker for purification, and threw the remainder of the ashes toward the choir. During his prayer, which continued for eight minutes, the cloud-maker api)eared like a statue. At the close of the prayer he dropped into the cloud bowl a quantity of to'chainitiwa (a certain root used by the cult societies to produce suds, symbolic of the clouds), and sprinkled with corn pollen the surface of the water, which was already quite covered with it; then, taking the reed in his right hand and still holding it vertically, he began a regular and rapid movement with the reed, in a short time producing a snowy- white froth, which, under his dextrous manipulation, rapidly rose high above the bowl, and fell from it in cascades to the floor. The bowl stood on a cincture pad of yucca, a circle of meal symbolic of the heart or life of the water having been first made. The reed was never raised from the bowl during the stirring of the water. When the clouds were perfected the song ceased, and the cloud-maker stood the reed in the center of the suds, which now wholly concealed the bowl. lie then rose, and, after holding his two eagle plumes in his left hand for a moment, he changed one to the right hand and began dancing before the altar; presently he dipped a quantity of suds from the base of the bowl with his two eagle plumes, and threw them to the north of the altar; again dipping the suds, he threw them to the south; continuing to dance to the music of the rattle and the song, he dipped the suds and threw them to the fireplace; dipping them again, he threw them to the earth, each time with an invocation to the cloud i)eople. As he threw the suds to the earth two of the choir dipped their plumes into the bowl of medicine water and sprinkled the altar by striking the upper sides of the plumes with their rattles. The cloud-maker again dipped up the suds, and, facing east, threw them toward the zenith ; he then dipped the suds and deposited them in the center of the basket containing the plume offer- ings; then waving his eagle plumes from north to south, he continued

dauciiig, raising first one plume and then the other as he pointed them toward the altar. In a moment or two he dipped snds and threw them toward the women on the north side of the room, and dipping them again threw them toward the women of the south side; at the same time tlie male members reache<l forward, and, dipping their plumes into the medicine bowl, sprinkled the altar, each time petitioning the cloud people to gather. The cloud-maker then threw suds to the west; again he dipped the suds and threw them to the zenith, then to the altar; a portion was then plac*ed on the front ya'ya; again he danced, for a time extending his eagle plumes and withdrawing them, and dipped the suds and threw them upward and toward the man on the north end of the line; at the same time the ho'naaite dipped his plumes into the medicine bowl and sprinkled the altar as heretofore described; and the cloud-maker dipped the suds, throwing them toward the vice ho'naaite, and, again dipping them, he threw them toward the ya'ni^siwittiinni; he then lifted suds and threw them to the west, then to the zenith, never failing to call the cloud people together. The ho'naaite, keeping his position back of the altar, dipped his plumes into the medicine water and sprinkled the members; again the cloud-maker lifted suds and threw them to the zenith; at the sfime time the second woman at the west end of the line on the north side dipped her wand into the medicine water, with aery for the cloud people to gather; the cloud-maker then threw the suds to the west and the ho'naaite sprinkled the members with the medicine water, and the cloud-maker placed the suds upon the heads of the white bear and parrot; and stooping he stirred the suds briskly.

The ti'iimoni lighted a cigarette from a coal at the fireplace and handed it to the cloud-maker, who stood the reed in the center of the suds before receiving the cigarette; he blew the first few whiflfs over the suds and then smoked a moment or two and laid about one-third of the cigarette by the side of the cloud bowl. The song, which hiid continued almost incessantly for three hours, now ceased, and the cloud-maker returned to his seat in the line. The ti'tiinoni sat by the fire and smoked, several joining him for a short time; but all soon returned to their seats in the line and continued their smoke.

At the beginning of the succeeding song the two women at the east end of tlie south line danced before the altar and sprinkled it by striking the wand held in the left hand on the top with the one held in the right. One of the women was frequently debarred taking part in the ceremony owing to the attention required by her infant, who was at times fretful.

Two women from the east end of the north line joined in the dance, and then a third woman from the south line; three of the women formed in line running north and south; an aged woman at the west end of the south line dance^l, but did not leave her place at the end of tlie line. She pulled the young boy who sat near her forward, telling him

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Bureau of Ethnology.

Eleventh Annual Report. Plate XVI

CEREMONIAL VASE.

to dance. The dancers faced first the east, then the west, sprinkling the altar whenever they reversed, invoking the cloud people to gather. The boy was beautifully graceful, but the women were clumsy ; one of tbem attempted to force out the man at the north end; failing in this, a second woman tried with better success, and the man joined in the dance; this little byplay amused the women. The ho'naaite sprinkled the young man, who in turn sprinkled the ho'naaite. Before the close of the dance the aged woman at the west end of the south line joined the group of dancers and pulled the young man about, telling him to dance well and with animation. At 1:30 a. m. the women sprinkled the altar and returned to their seats, but the man and boy continued to dance and sprinkle the altar at intervals. The vicar placed the basket of plume offerings on the line of meal, and collecting suds from the base of the cloud bowl deposited them in the center of the basket of plumes; and all the members dipped their plumes into the medicine water and sprinkled the altar: the man facing south and the boy north, then sprinkled toward the respective points, and passing down on either side of the meal line they sprinkled eastward, and crossing the line of meal the man sprinkled to the north and the boy to the south, and they returned to the altar and danced for a time, the man remaining north of the line and the boy south. The sprinkling of the cardinal points was repeated four times.

The dancers having taken their seats in the line the ya'ni*siwittanui removed the bowl of medicine water and placed it before the basket of plume offerings; then stooping, he took one of the ya'ya in his left hand and with the right administered the medicine water from an abalone shell to the women first, the infant in the mother's arms receiving its l)ortion; then to the boy and men. After each draft the hi'shami and wands were touched to the ya'ya and the sacred breath drawn from them; the ho'naaite was the last to be served by the ya'nitsiwittaniii, who in turn received the medicine water from the ho'naaite, who held the ya'ya while ofliciating. The ya'ni^siwittanni then left the chamber, carrying the ya'ya in his left hand and bowl of medicine water with both hands. When outside the house he sprinkled the six cardinal points, the water being taken into the mouth and thrown out between the teeth.

The ho'naaite lifting the basket of plume oflferings stooped north of the meal line and the ti'amoni and the younger member of the snake division stooped south of the line 'of meal. The necklaces of bears' elaws had been removed and all but the ho'naaite's laid on a pile of bear-leg skins, he depositing his on the snake fetich at the north side of the altar. The two young men put on their moccasins and wrapped around them their blankets which had served as seats during the ceremonial before advancing to meet the ho'naaite, who, while the three held the basket repeated a long litany, responded to by the two young men. The women laughed and talked, paying little attention to this

CEREMONIAL. 85

pnyer. At th^ oonehisMMi tiie bo luuute gave a bundle of ba'cbaiiKiiii TO tbr ti aMtoni aod a ^uiilar one to bis eompanioD: be tbeii ^ve a chi<7rr of plume offrring^ to tbe ti amoni and tbe remainder of tbe ^^xbers to tbe companion. Tbe offerings were recefved in tbe blank^rt tbn«wn over tbe left arm: and eacb of tbe young men taking a pineb nf $hrl\ mistnre left tbe cbamber to deposit tbem at tbe sbrines of tbe K<« pI^hIaia witb prayers to tbe Snake bo naaite$: - 1 send yon ba cbam*^n and (lay yon b^rrotnnte, Ta'waka, maic koriwapaL. I- ^:sa-ti-e& mrkis and sbell offerings) Cperwe tbe diffeient foods ^ tbat yoa may lie pleased and bare all tbings to eat and wear. 1 i^y yoa tbe^^ tbat y«»n will beseeeb tbe elood-nilers to send tbeir i^ft^ple to vater tbe eartb thai sbe may be finitiul and give to all people abondanee of all food-"

As the bearers of tbe ofierings left tbe cbamber tbe bo'naaite plj^yed ai«>n a dnte wbicb was quite musical: and upon tbeir return be received tbem standing in front of tbe altar« and nortb <^ tbe meal line; aAf r a prayer by tbe bo naaite tbe young men turned to tbe altar and the Ti axnoiii offered a prayer, wbicb was responded to by tbe bo^naaite^ wbo DOW sat l^ack <^ tbe altar.

Tbe l»oy then made two cigarettes and. after ligbting one* be banded it to tbf ti anK»ui: the second be gare to tbe companion. Altera feast of brvad. stewed meat, and coffee, tbe bo naaite stooped before tbe altar aud. taking the ya ya from the Tail of Tbe sand-painted cougar in bis left baud, he i>ressed the palm of bis right band to tbe sand cougar, and drew a breath from it. and. raising tbe ya ya to bis bps, drew a breath fh^m it. and clasped it close to his breast and passed bebind tbe altar and, reai^hing over it, he moved tbe center one of tbe tbree ya'y» To the right, and subsTituTed tbe one he carried, and reeumed bis seat. In a moment or Two The ho naaiTe removed Tbe Two large fetiches of tbe ci>ugar to The ba4.'k of the ahar: and Tbe vicar (vrayed and touched tbe four i-ardiual pomTs of tbe sand painting with pollen, and tben placed the i*alm of bis right hand to the sand-painted cougar and, after drawing the sacred breath, rubbed his band over bis body, when all tbe members hastened to pn'ess their hands to tbe sand-painting, draw tbe breath, and rub their bodies for mental and physical purification; during which time the ti'amoni sat back of the altar holding bis eagle plumes with both hands before his frice, and silently prayed.

The remaining sand was brushed together frtim the four points by a woman with an eagle plume, and lifred. with the plume, and emp^ed into the palm of her left hand and carried to her home and rubber! over tbe l»odies of her male children.

Tbe ya ya were collected by Their individual owners, wbo blew tbe meal from The feathers and carefully inclosed them in tbeir tbree wrappings. The four wands of turkey iilumes in tbe claybolders concealed ha'cba- Dioni lor Sus'slstinnako frtwn the ho'naaite of the Spider Society: these were not deposited until sunrise, and then by such meml>ers of tbe

Spider Society as were designated by the lio'naaite. They were planted to the noHh, west, south, and east of the village, whence Po'shaiyiinne departed, with jirayers to t)t'8?t to receive the ha'chamoni for Siis'ststinnako, the Cremator. After examining them (the spiritaal essence) to see that they are genuine, she hands them to SDs'sIstinnako.

The ha'chamoni convey to those to whom they are ofTered messages as clear to the Indian understanding as any document does to the civilized mind.

The following account of the initiation of a member into the third degree of the Snake order was given the writer by the vicar of the Snake Society.

I was very iU with HmaUpox caused by angry ants, and one night in my dreams I saw many snakes, very many, and aU tlie next day I thought about it, and I knew if I did not see the ho'naaite of the Snake Society and teU him I wished to become a member of that body I would die. In two days I went to the house of the ho'naaite bearing my offering of sheH mixture and related my dreams and made known my wish to be received as a member of the society. The man now ill with his heart notified the ho'uaait<e of the Snake Society that he wished to join the society. The ho'naaite sent for me and the other official member to meet him in the ceremonial chamber to receive the sick man, who, presenting the shell mixture to the ho'naaite informed him that he had dreamed of many snakes and knew that he must become a member of the society or die.

Such is the impression made upon these people by dreams. This man will be a novitiate for two years, as it requires that time to learn the songs which must be committed to memory before entering the third degree. He continued :

I was two years learning the songs, during which time I passed through the first and second degrees. I then accompanied the ho'naaite and the members of the society to the houne of the snakes, when I was made a member of the third degree.

The ceremonials in which snakes are introduced are exclusively for the initiation of members into the third Jegree of the Snake division. These ordinances must be observed after the ripening of the com.

The day of the arrival of the society at the snake house (a log structure which stands upon a mound some 6 miles from the village) ha'- chamoni are prepared by the ho'naaite and the other members of this division of the society ; they are then dispatched by the ho'naaite to the north in search of snakes; and after the finding of the first snake the ha'chamoni are planted; thenumber of snakes required, depending upon the membershii), the ratio being equal to the number of members; there must be a snake from each of the cardinal points, unless the membership is less than four, which is now the case. There being but three members at the present time, only the north, west, and south are visited for the puri)ose of collecting snakes, but the members must go to the east and deposit ha'chamoni to the Snake ho'naaite of the east.

The war chief notifies the i>eople each day that they must not \isit the north, west, S(mth, or east; should one disobey this command and

VICE HO'-NA-AI-TE OF SNAKE SOCIETY.

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The snake is then placed around the throat and head and over the body of the novitiate.

Though the snake can not speak, he hears all that is said, and when he is i)laced to the body he listens attentively to the words of the ho'naaite, who asks him to look upon the boy and give the boy wisdom like his own that the boy may grow to be wise and strong like himself, for he is now to become a member of the third degree of the Snake division of the society. The ho'naaite then prays to the snake that he will exhort the cloud rulers to send their people to water the earth, that she may bear to them the fruits of her being.

The snake is not only implored to intercede with the cloud rulers to water the earth that the Sia may have abundant food, but he is invoked in conjunction with the sun-father in the autumn and winter to provide them with blankets and all things necessary to keep them warm.

Propitiatory prayers are not oflfered to the snakes, as, according to the Sia belief, the rattlesnake is a peaceful, and not an angry agent. They know he is friendly, because it is what the old men say, and their fathers' fathers told them, and they also told them that it was the same with the snakes in Mexico. "In the summer the snake passes about to admire the flowers, the trees and crops, and all things beautiful."

The snake is afterwards placed in the empty vase, and the vice ho'naaite repeats the ceremony with a second snake, and this rite is followed by each member of the Snake division of the society. The ho'naaite then directs his vicar and another member of the society to carry the vases to the grotto (the conical structure outside) and the latter to remain in the grotto with the snakes; he then with a novitiate by his side passes from the house, and approaching the grotto stands farcing it while the vicar and other male members of the society form in line from ea«t to west facing the north, the vice and novitiate standing at the west end of the line.

Those of the Snake division wear fringed kilts of buckskin with the rattlesnake painted upon them, the fringes being tipped with conical bits of tin. The ho'naaite's kilt is more elaborate than the others, the fringes having fawns' toes in addition to the tin. Their moccasins are of fine buckskin painted with kaolin. The hair is flowing. The body of the one to receive the third degree is colored black with a ftingus found on cornstalks, crushed and mixed with water. The face is painted red before it is colored black, and a red streak is painted under each eye, symbolic, they say, of the lines under the snakes' eyes. A fluffy eagle plume is attached to the top of the head, and the face is encircled with down from the hawk's breast. The hands and feet are painted red, and the body zigzagged with kaolin, symbolic of lightning. The buckskin kilt is painted white, with a snake upon it, and white moccasins are worn (PI. X C). The other members of the society do not have their bodies

painted, and they wear their hair done up in the usual knot and their feet bare.* They wear instead of the kilt a white cotton breechcloth. The women who do not take part in the dance wear their ordinary dress, the cotton gown being discarded.

Upon the opening of the song and dance the ho'naaite procures a snake at the entrance of the grotto and holding it horizontally with both hands presents it to the novitiate, who receives it in the same manner, clasping the throat with the right hand ; the ho'naaite and novitiate pass back and forth north of the line from the grotto four times, now and then the novitiate allowing the snake to wrap itself around his throat. The ho'naaite then takes the snake and returns it to the man in the grotto. If there be a second novitiate he and the first one change places, and the ho'naaite inquires of the second whom he wishes for a father and companion ; the boy designates a member of the Snake division, and the chosen one is required by the ho'naaite to take his place by the side of the novitiate and accompany him to the grotto; he again receives a snake which he hands to the boy and the former ceremony is repeated. When the novitiates have concluded, each member of the Snake division takes his turn in passing back and forth four times with a snake, the snake being handed him by a companion member. The song and dance does not (;ease until each snake has been passed through the ceremony. Two of the novitiates, if there be two or more, if not, a novitiate and a member, are requested by the ho'naaite to enter the grotto and receive the vases from the man inside. These they carry to a cave about half a mile distant, and here the bearers of the vases take out each snake separately and placing it upon the ground say : "Go to your home; go far and be contented." The first snake is deposited to the north, the second to the west, the third to the south, and the fourth to the east; this is repeated until all the snakes are disposed of. The vases are then placed in the cave and the entrance covered with a large slab. The ho'uaaite returning to the house takes the ya'ya from the tail of the sand -painted cougar and holding it in his left hand places the palm of his right hand to the cougar and draws from it a breath and rubs his hand over his breast, after which all evidences of the sand-painting are soon erased by the members who hasten forward and rub their bodies with the sand that they may be mentally and physically pnrifled.

When Mr. Stevenson discovered that the Sia held ceremonials with snakes he induced the vicar of the snake society to conduct him to the locality for that special rite. Leaving Sia in the early morning a ride of 6 miles over sand dunes and around blufl's brought the party, including the writer, to the structure known as the snake house, hid away among chaotic hills. Every precaution had been observed to maintain

• All the tigurea show tbt* feet as they are colored before the nioccasins are put on. The red spot on the bo<ly dcfligDates the heart, the black Hpot on the figure of the member of the fire society indicates the coal which is eaten. The white aroand the face, arms, and legs is down from the breast of the hawk.

secrecy. The house is a rectangular structure of logs (the latter must have been carried many a mile) and is some 8 by 12 feet, having a rude fireplace; and there are two niches at the base of the north wall near the west end in which the two vases stand during the indoor ceremonial. Though this house presented to the visitors a forlorn appearance, it is converted into quite a bower at the time of a ceremonial, when the roof is covered and fringed with spruce boughs and sunflowers and the interior wall is whitened. Some diplomacy was required to persuade the vicar to guide Mr. Stevenson to the cave in which the vases are kept when not in use. A ride half a mile farther into chaos and the party dismounted and descended a steep declivity, when the guide asked Mr. Stevenson's assistance in removing a stone slab which rested so naturally on the hillside that it had every appearance of having been placed there by other than human agency. The removal of the slab exposed two vases side by side in a shallow cave. A small channel or flume had been ingeniously made from the hilltop that the waters from ti'nia might collect in the vases. These vases belong to the superior type of ancient pottery, and they are decorated in snakes and cougars upon a ground of creamy tint. Mr. Stevenson was not quite satisfied with simply seeing the vases, and determined if possible to x)OS8es8 one or both ; but in answer to his request the vicar replied: "These can not be parted with, they are so old that no one can tell when the Sia first had them ; they were made by our people of long ago; and the snakes would be very angry if the Sia parted with these vases." Whenever opportunity afibrded, Mr. Stevenson expressed his desire for one of them; and finally a council was held by the ti'amoni and ho'naaites of the cult societies, when the matter was warmly discussed, the vicar of the Snake society insisting that the gift should be made, but the superstition on the part of the others was too great to be overcome. Mr. Stevenson was waited upon by the members of the council ; the ho'naaite of the Snake society addressing him : "You have come to us a friend; we have learned to regard you as our brother, and we wish to do all we can for you; we are sorry we can not give you one of the vases; we talked about letting you have one, but we concluded it would not do; it would excite the anger of the snakes, and perhaps all of our women and little ones would be bitten and die; you will not be angry, for our hearts are yours."

The night previous to the departure of the party from Sia the vicar of the Snake Society made several visits to the camp, but finding other Indians present he did not tarry. At midnight when the last Indian guest had left the camp he again appeared and hurriedly said, "I will come again," and an hour later he returned. "Now," said he, "closely fasten the tent, and one of you listen attentively all the while and tell me when you hear the first footstep;" and he then took from the sack one of the vase^, he being in the meanwhile much excited and also distressed. He would not allow a close examination to be made of

'"' ". ^ '.--"V '■-™' "

•i i 1 ■

il 111

f

8TEVEX80N.1 RAIN CEREMONIAL. 91

the vase, but urged the packing of it at once; he deposited a plume ottering in the vase, and sprinkled meal ui)on it and prayed while tears moistened his cheeks. The vase was brought to Washington and deposited in the National Museum.

RAIN CEREMONIAL OF THE GIANT SOCIETY.

About noon the ho'naaite, who was nude except the breechcloth, left his seat by the fireside in the ceremonial chamber, where his vicar had been assisting him during the morning in cutting willows and preparing ha'chamoni, and proceeded to make a sand painting in the east end of the room, and when this was completed he erected the slat altar (PI. XVIII a). During the preparation of the sand painting {b) the vicar remained at his post at work upon the ha'chamoni. When the two female members, a woman and a little girl some 8 years of age, arrived, the ho'naaite took from the wall nine shabby-looking sacks, handing one to each person present, reserving two for himself and laying the remaining four to one side to be claimed by the other members of the medicine order of the society. These sacks contained the ya'ya, one of which, it is claimed, was captured from the ITavajo by a former ho'naaite of this society, and this fetich is as precious as the others for the reason that it also represents tTt's6t, the mother of all Indians.

The five ya'ya were placed in line in front of the altar and on the sandpainting, and a miniature bow and arrow were laid before four of them, the captive one having none. Bear-leg skins with the claws were piled on either side of the altar, and upon these were laid necklaces of bears' claws, each necklace having a reed whistle suspended midway, two fluffy eagle plumes, tipped with black, being attached to the end of the whistle. The medicine bowl was posted before the five ya'ya, the stone fetiches arranged about the sand painting, and the cloud bowl in front of the whole. The woman brought a triple cupped paint stone near the altar and ground a black pigment, yellow ocher, and an impure malachite; these powders were mixed with water, and the woman and girl painted the hii'chamoni, the child being quite as dextrous as her elder; and equally interested.

While the ha'chamoni were being colored the ho'naaite wias busy assorting plumes. He first laid thirteen turkey plumes separately upon the floor, forming two lines ; upon each plume he laida fluffy eagle feather, and then added successively to each group a plume from each of the birds of the cardinjil points, turkey i)lume8 being used instead of chapparal cocks'. A low weird chant was sung while the ho'naaite and his vicar tied each pile of plumes together with native cotton cord, the ho'naaite waving each group, as he completed it, in a circle from left to right before his face. The woman at the same time made four rings of yucca, IJ inches in diameter, some two dozen yucca needles having been wrapped in a hank and laid in a bowl of water. The

child brought the hank from the farther end of the room to the woman, who, taking a needle of the yucca, wound it four times around her thumb and index finger; then wrapping this with an extra thread of yucca formed the ring. When the four rings were completed the child took them to the paint stone, which the woman had removed to the far end of the room, and dipped them into the yellow paint and laid them by the woman, who tied three of the piles of plumes together and afterwards handed the rings to theho^naaite, who added to each ring a plume from the wing of a humming bird. These rings were offerings to the cloud children emblematic of the wheels upon wnich they ride over ti'nia.

In attaching the plume offerings to the ha'chamoni, the latter are held between the large and second toes of the right foot of the men and woman. There were ten ha'chamoni to bear messages to the cloud rulers of the cardinal points — Ho'channi, high ruler of the cloud people of the world, SCis'sIstinnako, t^t'sCt, and the sun, the extra bunches of plumes being tied pendent to those already attached to the ha^chamoni for SCks'sIstinnako, frt's^t, and the sun.

The ho'naaite placed the ha'chamoni and rings in a flat basket and set it before the altar in front of the cloud bowl, and posted a stuffed parrot upon the central slat of the altar. At this time the other official members appeared, and, unwrapping their ya'ya, handed them to the ho'naaite, who stood them before the altar (PI. xix). The woman then brought a vase of water and gourd from the far end of the room, and the ho'naaite emptied four gourdfiils into the medicine bowl and then sprinkled corn pollen upon the water, and, dipping his two eagle plumes into the bowl, he sprinkled the altar and offerings. He did not speak a word, but took his seat by the fire and began smoking, awaiting the hour for the evening ceremonial. The ho'naaite and vicar had their meals served in the ceremonial chamber, and after eating, the remainder of the basket of bread and bowl of meat was placed before the altar.

The night ceremony opened with the ho^naaite (PI. xx) and his vicar dipping their plumes into the medicine water and sprinklingthe altar and the food which had been placed before it; the ho'naaite then, sitting in front and to the north side of the altar, repeated a long prayer, supplicating Mo'kaitc, Cougar of the North, to intercede with the cloud people of the north to water the earth that the crops might grow ; Ko'hai, the Bear, to intercede with the cloud people of the west to water the earth that the crops might grow; a smilar invocation was made to the Tuo'pe, Badger of the South, Ka'kanna, Wolf of the East, Titi'mi, Eagle of the Heaven, and Mai'tubo, Shrew of the Earth. The vicar then gathered a bit of bread fi*om the basket and of meat from the bowl and handed it to the ho'naaite, who left the house with the food in his left hand, holding his eagle plumes in his right; he cast the food to the animal Ko^pishtaia of the cardinal points, begging that they would intercede with the cloud people to come and water the earth; then, returning to

8nrEC905.l THE GIANT SOCIETY. 93

the i'eremouial chamber, he stoopeil before the altar and to the soath side of the line of meal aud prayed to the Ko'plshtaia, elosiDg with these words : •• I have offered you food, our food, that you may eat, iKnd I pray you to exhort the Ko'plshtaia of ti'nia [referring to the cloud people] to come ami water the earth." The male members of the society each smoked a cigarette, and afterward the bowl of stew and basket of bread were deiH>sited in the center of the room, and all gathered around and ate. The men then sat on either side of the room and again indulged in a smoke, the wiiman and girl sitting on the north side near the west end. After the cigarettes were finished the vicar drew a fresh line of meal from the altar to the diyor situated on the south side and near the we^ft end. and the members formed in line back of the altar. (An explanation of the drawing of the line of meal and the relative positions of the line of men back of the altar has already been given, and is applicable to the rain ceremonials of all the cult societies.) The woman took her seat on the north side of the room, near the altar, the little girl sitting opposite to her on the south side.

The ho'naaite and the ti'iimoni (the latter's position as ti'amoni has nothing whatever to do with his relations in the cult societies in which he holds membership) wore white Tusayan cotton breechcloths elaborately embroidered in bright colors: the \icar's was dark blue and the others white cotton; each man held two eagle plumes and a gooid rattle in the left band. The woman and little girl wore their ordinary dresses, the high neck calico gowns he'iug omitted, and they held a turkey wand tipj)e4l with fluffy eagle plumes dye^l a lemon color, in either hand.

The vicar gave a pinch of meal to the ho'naaite from the pottery meal Im>w] by the altar, who without rising from his seat sprinkled the altar. The son;: then ojtem^l to the accompaniment of the rattle, which had been tran>ferre4l to the ri;;ht hand, the eagle plumes still being held in the left, and keeping: time with the rattle. Each stanza closed with a short and rapid shake of the rattle. (The writer noticed in the cerenionials f»t the cult s*x:ieties of the 8ia the absence of the pottery drum, whirh i> su«'h an \m\tortauX feature with the Zufii and Tusayan.) With the ronjnjencenient of the ritual the men from either end of the line niove<! to the firepla^-*-, and lifting ashes with their plumes, deposited them l>efore the altar and north and south of the m^il line, and after dancing and jrestiiulating for a moment or two they again lifted ashes and sprinkle^i toward the altar, the under side of the plume held in the left hand l>eing struck with the one held in the right; again lifting a^he-- one *i[»rinkleil to the north and the other to the M>uth, and passing down on either side of the meal line they Sfirinkled to the west, and iTr^^in;: they pas>e«i up the line and when midway one sprinkled t'« the north, the other to the ?»^>uth: again dipping ash€^ they ^i»niikle<i to the zenith and with more allies they sprinkled Uf the nadir. Thi* >prinkling of the cardinal i^^ints was nqteaieii four times.

and the men then returned to their seats. The second man from the north end of the line coming forward danced while the others sang to the* accompaniment of the rattle, eaeh succeeding stanza following in quick succession, the dancer now and then varying the monotony of the song by calling wildly upon the cloud people to come and water the earth. The woman and child waved their wands to the rhythm of the song; the woman who held a sick infant much of the time occasionally fell asleep, but she was awakened by the vicar who sat near her, passing his eiigle plumes over her face. Whenever the infant slept it was laid upon a sheepskin, seemingly unconscious of the noise of the rattle and song.

When an especial appeal was to be made to tJt's^t, the ho'naaite reached over the altar and took the Navsgo ya'ya in his right hand and the one south of it in his left hand (he had deposited his eagle plumes by the altar, but he held his rattle). All now stood, the ho'naaite energetically swaying his body as he waved the ya'ya, holding them out, then drawing them in as he appealed to Ct's^ to instruct the cloud people to come and water the earth. This petition concluded, the ho'na- aite leaned over the altar, returning the ya'ya to their places, and the choir* took their seats and smoked cigarettes of native tobacco wrapped in corn husks. In a few moments the song was resumed, when the woman sprinkled the altar with meal and passing to the west end of the room she lifted a vase of water, placing it on the line of meal, not far from the door, keeping time with the song with her two wands and moving her body up an(| down by bending her knees, her feet resting firmly on the floor and over the line of meal ; again the bowl was raised and moved about 2 feet forward, and she repeated the motion. The bowl was in this way moved five times, the last time being placed immediately before the basket of oiferings. As she placed the bowl for the last time she waved the wand held in her right hand twice over the altar, when the song closed orJy to begin again immediately. The ya'nPsiwittaniii now api)eared before the altar, north of the meal line and danced, holding two eagle plumes in the left hand and rattle in the right. After a time, transferring the rattle to his left hand, he lifted a gourd of water from the vase and, holding it for a moment, waved it before the altar and emptied it into the medicine bowl with an appeal to the cougar of the north to intercede with the cloud X>eople that the earth might be watered ; another gourdful immediately followed; he then took the rattle in the right hand and joined in the song, and danced. A third time he dipped a gourd of water, waved it toward the west with an exhortation to the bear of the west, and emptied it into the bowl, following this with another gourdful, when a weird call was given for the cloud people to come and water the earth. Again he danced andjsang, and after a time a fifth gourdful was lifted and waved toward the south, with an appeal to the badger of the south, and emptied into the bowl, when another gourdful followed, and

MO'-NA-*l-TE OF OIAHT SOCIETY.

dancing for a moment he lifted another gourdful and emptied it into the medicine bowl, imploring the wolf of the east to exhort the cloud people to water the earth, when another gourdftil immediately followed. After dancing for a time a gourdful was again dipped and waved toward the altar, then upward, with a call upon the eagle of the heaven to invoke the cloud people to water the earth, and immediately another gourdful of water was emptied into the bowl. Again dancing awhile, a gourdful was waved toward the altar and emptied into the bowl, with a call upon the shrew of the earth to implore the cloud people to water the earth, and again a gourdful was emptied into the bowl. The song closed as the last gourd of wati^r was poured into the bowl and the ya'ni^siwittanni resunie<l his seat. The woman returned the vase to the west end of the room, and taking a small medicine bag from before the altar, she untied it and handed it to the ya'ni^siwittaniii. The men and the girl then took similar bags from before the altar, and the song again began in a low tone to the a<3companiment of the rattle. Each member, taking a i)inch of corn pollen from his medicine bag, threw it upon the altar and into the medicine bowl, gi\ing a peculiar cry, it being an invocation to the cloud people to gather and water the earth, the woman and child not failing to throw in their share of pollen, raising their voices to the highest pitch as they petitioned the cloud people to water the earth. All then proceeded to take meal from the meal bowl before the altar and throw it into the medicine bowl, continuing their entreaties to the cloud i)eoi)le to water the earth. Six times the meal was thrown into the bowl with invocations to the cloud people. They then returned to their seats, having first deposited the medicine bags before the altar.

The ti'Jimoni took from a bear leg skin six small pebble fetiches, handing one to each man, who in turn passed it to the ya'ni^siwittiinni. This recipient advanced to the front of the altar and danced to the music of the choir, and waving his left hand over the altar he dropped a fetich into the medicine bowl, at the same time waving the eagle plumes and rattle which he held in his right hand. After dancing awhile he droi)ped a fetich from his right hand into the medicine water, and, continuing to dance, he let fall the remaining four fetiches alternately from the left and right hand. Each time a fetich was dropped he gave a weird animal-like growl, which was a call ujwn the prey animals of the cardinal i)()ints to exhort the cloud peoi)le to gather and water the earth that she might be fruitful. He then returned to his seat, but almost immediately arose and, st^mding for a moment, advanced to the front of the altar, stirred the medicine water with the (»agle plumes he held in the left hand and sprinkled the offerings by striking the plumes on the top with the rattle, held in the right hand. The sprinkling was repeated four times while the cloud people were invoked to water the earth; as the plumes were struck the fourth time the choir stood and sang and the ya'ni.^siwittanui again dipped

thiK plames into the medicine water and sprinkled the altar. The ho^uaaite then leaning forward dipped his plames into the water and sprinkled the altar with a weird call for the cloud people to gather and water the earth that she might be frnitf ol. Then each member rei>eated the sprinkling of the altar with a similar prayer^ the little girl being qnite as enthusiastic as the others, straining her voice to the utmost capacity as she implored the cloud people to gather. The men stxuck the plumes in their left hands with the rattles held in their right, and the woman and child struck the wand held in the left hand with tlie one held in the right. Each person repeated the sprinkling of the aIImt successively six times, with appeals to the animals of the cardinal points. After each sprinkling the sprinkler returned to his place in the line. Thus the choir was at no time deficient in more than one of its number. At the conclusion of the sprinkling a stanza was ssBg and the altar was again sprinkled six times by each member; in this instance, however, the choir was grouped before the altar, the ho'naaite alone being seated back of it absorbed in song. After the sprinkling the choir returned to the line and joined the ho'naaite in the chant and at its conclusion he sprinkled the altar four times. He did not leave his seat, but leaned forward and dipped his plumes into the medicine water. The ti'amoni then advanced from the south end of the line and the ya'ni^siwittanfii from the north end and sprinkled toward the cardinal points, by passing along the line of meal as heretofore described, the sprinkling being repeated twice. The ti'amoni returned to his seat and the ya'ni*siwittanfii removed the bowl of medicine water, placing it before the fetiches and on the line of meal and stooping with bended knees and holding his two eagle plumes and a ya^ya in his left hand he administered the medicine water to all present, the girl receiving the first draught from an abalone shell. The woman was served next, some being given to the infant she held in her arms, the ho'naaite receiving the last draught. Taking the ya'ya from the ya'ni^siwittanni he drew it to his breast and then returned it to the ya'ni^siwittaniii, he receiving it in his left hand and lifting the bowl with both hands he left the house and filling his mouth from the bowl threw the medicine water through his teeth to the cardinal points, and returning placed the bowl and ya'ya in position before the altar.

The ho'naaite gathering the ha'chamoni in his left hand and taking a pinch of meal with his right, stooped before the altar and south of the meal line and offered a silent prayer, and, after sprinkUng the altar and ha'chamoni, he divided the offerings, holding a portion in either hand. The ti'amoni and a companion then stooped north of the line of meal and facing the ho'naaite, clasped his hands with their right bands, holding their eagle plumes in their left and responded to a low litany offered by the ho'naaite, who afterwards drawing a breath from the plumes laid them upon the blankets over their left arms, the two men having wrapped their blankets about them before advancing to the

8TEVEN80N.1 THE GIANT SOCIETY. 97

ho'iiaaitc. They then left the ceremonial chamber and walked a long distance through the darkness to deposit the offerings at a shrine of the Ko'plshtaia. The remaining members talked in undertones until the return of the abscLt ones, who, upon entering the chamber, stood before the altar and offered a i)rayer which was responded to by the ho'naaite. All the members then gsithered before the altJir and asked that their prayers might be answered. The woman and girl arranged bowls of f(M)d in line midway the room and south of the meal line and the feast closed the ceremonial at 2 o'clock, a. m.

FOUR nights' CEREMONIAL OF THE GIANT SOCIETY FOR TUE HEALING

OF A SICK BOY.

The night succeeding the ceremonial of the Sko'-yo Ohai'-Jin (Oiant Society) for rain the assembly began its ritualistic observances, which continue four consecutive nights, for the curing of the sick by the brushing process. During the afternoon a sand-painting was made in the eiist end of the room (comi)are sand-painting Giant Society, (PI. xviii^); ya'ya and stone fetiches were grouped upon the painting; a medicine bowl was placed before the ya'ya; bear- leg skins were deposited on either side of the fetiches and a white embroidered sacred Tu- sayan blanket was folded and laid by the bear-leg skins south of the painting. The live male members of the medicine division of the society had refreshments served eai'ly in the evening by the female members, and after supper the ti'amoni, who is a member of the medicine division, placed a bowl of stewed meat and a basket of bread near the painting; the remainder of the food was stored in the northwest corner of the room for future consumption.

The live men formed in line back of the fetiches, the ho'naaite being the central figure; they had scarcely taken their seats, however, before the ti'jlmoni brought a vase of water and a gourd from the west end of the room and set it before the sand-painting and returned to his seat; the ho'naaite, advancing, dipped six gourdftils of water, emptying each one into the medicine bowl.*

The ho'naaite then passing to the north side of the painting stooped with bended knees, holding in his left hand two eagle plumes, and repeated a low prayer; then, taking a small piece of the bread, he dipped it into the stew and scattered it before the fetiches; and, taking more bread and a bit of the meat, he left the ceremonial chamber and threw the food as an offering to the animals of the cardinal points. The ti'Jimoni then returned the bowl of meat and basket of bread to the far end of the room. Upon the return of the ho'naiiite his vicar spread the Tusayan blanket upon the floor, some 5 feet in front of the painting. He next sprinkled a line of meal from the edge of the blanket nearest

I Female iu<'mberH are never preHeot at Ihe cercmouial of bruHliiog with ntrawM and feathers, and therefore the ya'j'a belonging to the woman and child were not to be seen on this occasion, and neither did the one captured fh>m the Navi^o appear.

11 ETH 7

the painting to the bear fetich* which stood foremo^ on the paintinsr: thence across the blanket and along the floor to the entrancf on the south side and near the west end of the chamber: again, beginning at the center of the blanket he sprinkled a line of meal across the blanket to the south edge, and beginning again at the ct^nter he sprinkled a line of meal to the north edge and continnetl this line to the north wall. Then beginning at the line ending at the south of the blanket, he ran it out to the south wall (these four lines being symbolic of the four winds), and placed the bowl of meal in front of the painting and north of the line of meal. The meal having become somewhat exhausted, the pottery meal bowl was replaced by an Apache basket, containing a quantity of fresh meal« ground by a woman in an adjoining room, where a portion of the family had already retired. The bas- ket of meal was received from the woman by the ti amoni. who stood to her left side while she ground the com in the ordinar>' family milL The remainder of the contents of the pottery meal bowl was emptied into the Apache basket, the portion from the bowl being deened sufficient in quantity to lend a sacred character to the freshly gi^und meal. The ho'naaite then fastened about his neck a string of bearsclaws with a small reed whistle, having two s^^fr white eagle plumes tied to the end, attached midway, which he took from a pile of bear-leg skins, having first waved the necklace around the white bear fetich, which stood to the front of the painting. Each member of the society then put on a similar necklace; two of the members fastened amulets around their upi^er right arms and two around their left arms. The ho'naaite rolled his blanket in a wad and sat upon it. The other members made simihur cushions. The ti amoni. whose seat was at the south end of the line, crossed to the north side of the room, and taking a bit of red pigment rubbed it acn^ss his face and returned to his seat, each member rubbing a bit of galena across the forehead, across the face oelow the eyes, and about the lower part of the face. The paint was scarcely perceptible. It was put on to insure the singing of the song correctly. The ti'amoni again crossed the room, and taking from the north ledge a bunch of com husks, he handed them to the man who sat next to him, who was careful to manipulate them under his blanket, drawn around him. The writer thinks that they were made into frinnels, in which he placed tiny pebbles fixmi ant hiUs^ The vice-ho'- naaite, at the north end of the line, left the room, and during his absence the ho'naaite, taking a bunch of straws which lay by the bear- leg skins, divided it into ^Ye part<^ giving a portion to eai-h one present. He reserved a share for the absent member, who returned in a short time, bearing the sick child in his arms, being careful to walk on the line of meal; he set the child upon a low stool pla<^ on the broad band of embroidery of the blanket. (PL xxi ^ The man then handed the basket of meal to the child, who, obeying the instructions of the viceho'uaaite, took a pinch and threw it toward the :iltar with a few words

Bureau of Ethnology Eleventh Annual Report Plate XXII

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ALTAR AND SAND PAINTING. KNIFE SOCIETY.

STK7EK80K.1 FOUR NIGHTS' CEREMONIAL. 99

of prayer to Ko^pl^htaia. The vicar theu returned to liis seat, aucl the members, with eagle plumes and straws in their left hauds and rattles in tbeir right, began the ritual; they were nine minutes singing the first stanza, which was sung slowly and in very low tones, and at its close each one drew a breath from the eagle plumes and straws. The second stanza was sung hinder and taster. The monotony of the song was broken by an occasional animal-like call, which was a request to the cougar of the north to give them power over the angry ants. The child was afflicted with a severe, sore throat, caused by ants having entered his body when he was in the act of mi<*turition ui>on their house, and ascending they located in his throat. Alter the second stanza the ho'naaite blew first on the right side of the child, then on his ba(*k, his left side, and his breast; the other members continuing the song to the accompaniment of the rattle. When lie took his seat, the ti'amoni and the man who sat next to him each drew a brejith from their eagle plumes and straws, and dipping them into the medicine water, each one extended his plumes to the child, who drew a breath from them. The two men then resumed their seats. The ho'- naaite, again dipping his plumes in the medicine water, passc^i the ends through the ti'amoni's mouth, and afterwards through the mouth of each member, the plumes being dipped eaeh time into the bowl of medicine water. The men were occupied a few moments in drawing some- thing from several of the bear-leg skins. All except the ho'naaite gathered around the altar, dancing and gesticjulating in excessive excitement and blowing upon the whistles suspended from their neck- laces. They constantly dipped their eagle plumes into the medicine water, throwing their arms vehemently about, sprinkling the altjir and touching the animal fetiches with their plumes, and then ])lacing the plumes to the mouths, absorbing from them the sained breath of the animal. The ho'naaite with bowed head continue<l his invocations to the cougar of the north, seemingly unctonscious of all that was going on abcmt him. After maneuvering before the altar, the four men performed similar extravagances ab<mt the child, one of the men standing him in the center of the blanket, careftil to place the boy's feet in diagonal angles formed by the meal lines. Then the four left the room, carrying with them tbe material taken from the bear-leg skins. The ho'naaite did not cease shaking the rattle and singing during the absence of the four, who visited the house of the sick boy to purify it, Ul)on returning to the ceremonial room they threw their arms aloft, waving their plumes above them and then about the child, singing and growling, alter which they resumed their seats in line with the ho'naaite, and joined him in the song to the accompaniment of rattles. After a few moments these four men and the ho'naaite surrounded the boy; the ho'naaite standing at the northeast (corner of the blanket, and the ti'jimoni at the southeast corner, while the othtTs formed a semicircle behind the boy. They all waved plumes and straws in their

100 THE 81 A.

left hands over the invalid boy, and passed them simultaneously down his body from head to feet, striking the plumes and straws with rattles which they held in their right hands; and as the plumes and sti*aws were moved down the boy's body ants in any quantity were supposed to be brushed off the body, while in reality tiny pebbles were dropped upon the blanket; but the conjuration was so i>erfect the writer could not tell how or whence they were dropped, although she stood close to the group and under a bright light from a lamp she had placed on the wall for the purpose of disclosing every detail. The tiny nude boy standing upon the white embroidered blanket, being brushed with the many eagle plumes, struck with their rattles by Ave beautifully formed Indians, was the most pleasing scene of this dramatic ceremonial. The brushing of the child with the plumes was rei)eated six times, and he wais then backed off the blanket over the line of meal and set upon the stool, which had been removed from the blanket, and was afterward given a pinch of meal and told to stand and look at the ants which had been extracted from his body, and to sprinkle the meal ui)on them. After this sprinkling he resumed his seat upon the stool. The ho'naaite stooped with bended knees at the northeast corner of the blanket and whispered a prayer and sprinkled the blanket. Each member with eagle plumes sprinkled the blanket with meal and carefully brushed together all the material which had fallen on the floor instead of the blanket, after which the ti'amoni gathered the corners together, waved it over the child's head, and left the room with it. All sat perfectly quiet, holding their rattles, eagle plumes, and straws in their right hands during the absence of the ti'^moni. Upon his return he waved the folded blanket twice toward the group of fetiches and toward himself, then passed it twice around the child's head, and finally laid it upon the pile of bear-leg'skins at the south side of the painting. The child, who was ill and burning with fever, was led by the vice ho'naaite to the fetiches, which he sprinkled with meal, and was carried from the chamber and through an outer room to his mother at the entrance.

The ho'naaite is not supposed to leave the ceremonial chamber thit)ughout the four days and nights, as he must guard the animal fetiches and medicine. The other members are also supposed to spend much of the day and all of the night in watching the fetiches; but the writer is of the opinion that they all go to sleep after the feast, which is enjoyed as soon as the child leaves the chamber.

The only variation in the ceremonial on the second night was that the vicar dipped the bit of bread into the bowl of stew and scattered it to the animal fetiches, having previously lifted ashes from the fireplace and sprinkle<l the altar with them by striking the plume held in the left hand on the under side with the plume held in the right; then holding the plumes l)etween his hands he repeated a long and scarcely audible prayer. After scattering the food to tbe animal fetiches, be

• ' •

• •• •

• ••

dipi)e4l a piece of bread into the stew, left the house and threw tK^4bpd to the cardinal iN)int8, as the ho'n^iaite had done the previous n'i|c)it,.- and, returning, removed the bowl of stew and basket of bread to tbe . northwest C4»rn<»r of the room. He then swept the floor with his tw6«vr *• eagle ]>lumes, beginning some 18 inches in front of the altar (the line of meal remaining iH'rfect to this point) to the point where the blanket was to be plai'ed, and then laid the blanket and made the meal lines, the change in the drawing of these lines being that the line wiirS began at the line of meal which ext(^nded in front of the altar and ran over the blanket to the entrance of the room; then beginning in the center of the blanket, the line was extended across to the north wall, and again beginning in the center, a line was nin across to the south wall. The writer mentions this deviation in the drawing of the meal lines, though she In^lieves it was a mere nuitter of taste on the part of the worker. Instead of the vice ho'naaite receiving the child at the outer entrance, the man who sat between him and the ho'naiiite brought the child into tlu^ r‹N›m, and he was led out by the ti'amoni. Ui>on this occasion, and on the third and fourth nights, the child walked into and out of the r(M)m, an indication that he was in better physi<ral condition than on the first night of the c<Temony. The songs on the second night were addressed to the bear of the west instead of the cougar of the north. The child did not seem to move a muscle throagh<mt the (ceremony, except when he st(^])p<'d to his i)osition on th(^ blanket.

The scen(»8 on the third and fourth nights were coincident with those of the se<»ond, witli a few variations. Tlie man who sat between the ho'naaite and liis vicar dipped the ashes with his plumes and sprinkled the altar, and, returning to his seat, the vicar laid the blanket and sprinkled the meal lines in the same manner as cm the previous night; he also i^njcured the child. When dancing before the altar two men wore bear-leg skins on their left arms, and two others won» them on their right arms. It was noticed that the skins were drawn over the arms upon which th(* amulets were worn. Tlieir dancing and incantations wen» t^ven more turbulent "suid more weird than on the two former nights.

The songs the third night were addressed to the badger of the soutli and on the fourth to the wolf of the east.

RAIN (CEREMONIAL OF THE KNIFB SOriBTY.

While the lio'naaite and his vi(;ar sat during the morning making hii'chamoni they rehearsed in undertones the songs of their cnlt. The membershii) of tliis society consists at the present time of five men and two boys, and two n(»vitiates, a man and a boy.

The sun was far to tlie west when the members came straggling in and the ho'naaitc proceeded to set up the slat altar (PI. xxiia). Then each man took from the wall a soih^l bu(!kskin sack. The well-wrjipi)ed ya'ya was iirst taken out and then other fetiches. Aft^er the ho'uaaite

102.:'

b9d-iinwra])i)ed bis ya'ya ho prepared the sand paiDtiiig iu frout of the .^altoV (PI, XXII 6). Tbo five ya'ya were stood ou tbe line specially made ^tt them and a miniaturQ bow and arrow laid before each ya'ya. The '■fio'iiaaite tbt-u grouped fetiches of human and animal forms, then the medicine bowl M)[itaiuing water and a basket of sa«red meal. Ue then drew a line uf meal which extended from the slut altar to a distance of 3 feet beyond the group of fetiches, bis vicar afterwanls assisting him with the additional fetiches. Two stone cougars 2 feet in length each were stood ap on either aide of the group. A cougar 12 inches long, with lightning cut in relief on either side, and a concretion, were then dei>osited before the group. Bear-leg skins were piled high

fi

m-'M

Fia. IT.— Kand |

Intlng H ladlciitcd Id PI. in.

on cither side of the altar. The cloud howl and reed were added, the two tiat baskets nfhii'chamoni and plume offerings ahowu in the sket«^'1i were afterwards deposited u{>on the backs of the cougnra While this nrrangemeut was iu progress the minor members returned tbe iHiwdered kaolin and black pigment to the ancient pottery vases, from which they htid been taken to prepare the sand-painting.

The ho'iiaaite consecrated the bowl of water by a prayer, and 4lroppiDg in the six fetiches he dipjH-d his eagle plumes into the water and striking tliem ou the top with liis rattle, sprinkled the altar; holding the plumes in the left hand and the rattle iu the right, he sprinkled the canlinal jHiints. The vi<'iir formed a circle of meal, then sprinkletl

HO'-NA-AI-TE OF KNIFE SOCIETY.

BTBVRN80N.]

THE KNIFE SOCIETY.

meal upon the <ircle and plmied a cincture pad of ync<'a ui)on it, and holding the cloud bowl high alK)ve his head, he invoke<l the cloud p<^o]>le of the north, west, south, east, zenith, an<l nadir, and of the whole world, to water the earth. The bowl was then set upon the pad and a reed 8 inches long laid at^ross it from northeast to s<mthwest. The vice ho'naaite spread a small cloth and ui>on it reduced the bit of root which was to pro<luce the suds to a powdt^r, which he plat'cd in a little heap in front of the cloud bowl. The ho'naaite, who had left the chamber, now returned with a parrot and a white stone bear 12 inches long; the bear was wrapped in a large fine white buckskin and the parrot was under the ho'naaite's blanket. These were <l(*posited before

the altar (PI. xxiii).

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Fio. 18.— Sand painting oaed In oeromonial for sick by

The ho'naaite (PI. xxi v) stooped and, praying, sprinkled corn xxdlenupon the bear and parrot. The bear and the bird had eagle plumes attached to their necks with cotton cord. Those on the bear were on the top of the neck and those of the parrot hung under the beak. After the prayer the ho^naaite lighted a cigarette of native tobacco and corn Imsk from a stick some o feet long, held by a boy member, and puffed the smoke over the bear and parrot. He then extended the ci garet te over the altar, afterwards waving it to the cardinal iKunts. The vicar and boy sprinkled the l)ear

Lnt ScK-iety.

and parrot with pollen from an abalone shell and the vicar dipped his eagle phnnesinto the medicine bowl and sprink1e<l them four times, then the altar, by striking the plumes with the rattle held in his right hand. Tlie ho'naaite then ]mffed smoke into the cloud bowl and over the bear and ])arrot, and extendi^ his cigarette to thecardinal points, and over the altar. The vicar lighted a similar cigarette from the long stick held by tlie boy, and standing to the west of the altar blew smoke over it, the ho'naaite standing and smoking to the right of him. The vicar laid the end ol" his cigarette by the cloud bowl and to the east of the line of the meal. The shell of corn pollen was then pla<*ed back of the altar and the

104 THE 81 A.

ho'naaite's eagle i)lume8 aud rattle laid beside it; a prayer before the altar by all the members closexi the afternoon ceremony.

It will be noticed that the slat altar in PI. xxv differs from that in IM. XXIII. Both belong to the Knife Society and may be seen hanging side by side on the wall in the ceremonial chamber of the Quer'riinna, (PL xxviii) which is also the official chamber of the Knife Society. The second was made in case of failure of the first. The vicar of this society is also ho'uaaite and only surviving member of the Ant Society, and he, being anxious that the writer should see the sand paint- ing of the Ant Society, prepared the painting for this occasion instead of the ho'naaite (Fig. 17). He also drew her a sketch of the painting of Ant Society for ceremonial held for the siok, which is here introduced (Fig. 18). This last may be described as follows:

a represents meal ])ainting emblematic of the clouds, b and c bear-leg skins laid either side of it. The remainder of painting is in sand. d: Ant chief clad in buckskin fringed down the arms and legs; he carries lightning in his left hand; his words pass straight from his mouth, as indicated by a line, to the invalid a, who sits at the opening of the ceremonial to the right of the painting. The ant chief speaks that the malady may leave the invalid. A song of this character is sung by the members of the society. The invalid then passes to the front of the altar and stands upon a sacred Tusayan blanket (position indicated by/ ), when the ho'naaite and other members o fthe society proceed with their incantations over him, imploring the prey animals to draw the ants to the surface of the body. When the ants hiive appeared and been brushed from the body then a song is addressed to the eagle g to come and f^ed upon the ants. When the ants have been eaten by the eagle the invalid will be restored to health. The two circular spots h represent ant houses. These, with the paintings of the ant chief and eagle, are gathered into the blanket upon which the invalid stood and carried some distance north of the village and deposited. After the blanket has been taken fi*om the chamber the meal painting is erased by the ho'naaite brushing the meal from each of the cardinal points to the center with his hand; he then rubs the invalid's body with the meal, after which the members hasten to rub their bodies with it, that they may be purified not only of any physical malady but of all evil thoughts.

When the writer entered the ceremonial chamber later in the evening food was being placed in line down the middle of the room. There were seven bowls, containing mutton stew, tortillas, waiavi, and hominy There was also a large pot of coffee and a bowl of sugar. The ho'naaite, standing to the east of the meal line, which extended from the altar to the entrance, repeated a long grace, after which one of the boy members gathered a bit of food from each vessel, and standing on the opposite side of the line of mea.1, handed the food to the ho'naaite, who received it in his left hand, having transferred his eagle plumes to the

BTEVENfiON.i THE KNIFE flOCIETY. 105

right. He then h»ft tlie house, and throwing the food to the irardinal points, offered it to the animal Ko'pTshtaia, with a prayer of intercession to the cloud i)eople to gather, saying:

"Ko'plshtaia! Here is food, come and eat; Ko'pishtaia, Cougar of the North, receive this food; Bear of the West, receive this food; Badger of the South, we offer you food, take it and eat; Wolf of the East, we give you food ; Eagle of the Heavens, receive this food ; Shrew of the Earth, receive this food. When you eat, then you will be contented, and you will pass over the straight road [referring to the pass- ing of the beings of the ko'plshtaia over the line of meal to enter the images of themselves]. We pray you to bring to us, and to all peoples, food, good health, and prosperity, and to our animals bring good health and to our fields large crops; and we pray you to ask the cloud people to come to water the earth."

Upon returning to the ceremonial chamber, the ho'naaite, standing before the altar, prays to Ma'asewe, CyuuyewC, and the six warriors of the mountains of the cardinal points to protect them from all enemies who might come to destroy their peace; and, standing at the end of the line of food, he offers a prayer of thanksgiving, holding his eagle plumes in his left hand. He then rolls his blanket into a cushion, sits upon it west of tlu» line t)f meal and smokes a cigarette. The food having been brought in by the wives of the members, all present drew around and enjoyed the feast. That the minor members felt at lil)erty to join with their elders was indicated by the way in which they pro- (•ceded to help themselves.

The war chief came into the room soon after the beginning of the meal, wrapped in a fine Navajo blanket, and carrying his bow and arrows. He stood in front of the altar, on the west side of the meal line, and prayed. The vice-ho'naaite administered to the war chief a draft of the medicine water which had been prepared in the afternoon, and then handed him the official staff of the society (a slender stick some 2 feet in length), which he held with his bow and arrows until the close of the ceremonial. The war chief sat for awhile at the south end of the room, and then left to patrol the town and to see that no one not privileged entered or came near the ceremonial chamber. After the meal was finished the three boys removed the bowls to another room, and, upon their return, one of them swept the middle of the floor, destroying most of the meal line, leaving but 2 feet of it undisturbed in front of the altar. This line, however, was renewed by the viceho'naaite, who carried two eagle feathers and the meal bowl in his left hand, while he sprinkled the meal with the right, not for the purpose of furnishing a road for the beings of pai'atiimo and ko'plshtaia to pass over, for they had previously come to the images of themselves, but that the songs might pass straight over and out of the house.

The men now indulged in a smoke. The writer never observed Sia boys smoking in these ceremonials or at any other time. The ciga-

106 THE SI A.

retten were lighted irom the long stick passed by oue of the boys, and after smoking, the ho'naaite and his younger brother put on white cotton embroidered Tusayan kilts as breechcloths, which they took from a hook on the wall, those of the other members being plain white cotton. The ho'naaite now took his seat back of the altar and lighted a second cigarette firom the long stick, blowing the smoke over the altar. This smoke was offered to Pai'at&mo and Ko'pXshtaia, the ho^uaaite saying: << I give this to you; smoke and be contented.'' He then administered medicine water to all present, dipping the water with a shell. The vice-ho'naaite, who received the last draft, drank directly from the bowl, and was careful not to leave a drop in it, after which the ho^naaite removed the six stone fetiches from the bowl. The process of pre- paring medicine water is substantially the same with all the cult societies, there not being in Sia nearly so much ceremony connected with this important feature of fetich worship as with the Zuiii and Tusayan. The six fetiches were returned to the buckskin bag and the ho'naaite resumed his seat behind the altar, the members and novitiates having already formed in line back of the altar, the official members each holding two eagle plumes in the left hand and a gourd rattle in the right. After a short prayer by the ho'naaite, the boy lifted ashes from the fireplace with his eagle plumes and placed them near the altar and east of the meal line; again he dipped a quantity, placing them west of the line of meal. As the chant opened, he stood west of the line and facing the altar, and an adult member stood on the east side, and each of them held an eagle plume in either hand and a gourd rattle also in the right. The boy dipped with the plumes the ashes which lay west of the line of meal and the man those which lay east of the line, and sprinkled toward the north by striking the plumes held in the left hand on the underside with the plume held in the right; again dipping the ashes, the boy sprinkled toward the west and the man toward the east; again lifting ashes, they passed to the south and sprinkled there; the boy then crossed to the east of the line of meal and the man to the west of the line, and when midway of the line the boy sprinkled to the east and the man to the west; then, dancing before the altar, they again lifted ashes and sprinkled to the north. When dancing, both eagle plumes were held in the left hand and the rattle in the right. Ashes- were again lifted and thrown twice toward the zenith and then thrown to the nadir. The sprinkling to the cardinal points, zenith and nadir, was repeated fifteen times in the manner described, This wa« to carry off all impurities of the mind, that it might be pure; that the songs would come pure from the lips and pass straight over the road of meal — the one road. The man and boy having resumed their seat« in the line, the vice-ho'naaite stood before the altar to the west side of the line of meal, shook his rattle for a moment or two, then waved it vertically in front of the altar, invoking the cloud people to come; he then waved the rattle from the west to the east, repeating

the weird exhortation, his body being kept in motion by the bending of his knees, his feet scarcely leaving the ground. The rattle was waved three times from the west to the east, and then waved toward the west and toward the alt'ar, the east and to the altar; then, raising the rattle high above his head, he formeerfectly still, resting it on the eagle plumes which he held in the lelt hand.

After the sixteenth repetition he waved tlie mttle over the altar. The song during this time is an appeal to the cloud people of the north, west, south, east, and all the cloud i)eoples of the world, to gather and send rain to water the earth, that all mankind may have the fruits of the earth. The vicar then stood to the right of the ho'naaite, and the choir, rising, continued to sing. The ho'naaite, leaning over the altar, took two of the central ya'ya, one in either hand, and alternat^ely raised them, keeping time with the song, now and then extending the ya'ya over the altar. The young novitiate hold neither rattle or plumes. The boy at the east end of the line, having passed through two degrees, held his rattle in the right hand and in his left a miniature crook. The vicar who stood at the right of the ho'naaite and the man who stood to his left moved their rattles and feathers in harmony with his motion, the three swaying their bodies back and forth and extending their arms outward and ui)ward. About this time it was noticed that the boys at the east end of the line had fallen asleep, and it was more tfian the man who sat next to them could do to keep them awake, although he was constantly brushing their faces with his eagle plumes. This little scene was something of a picture, as the boy whose shoulder acted as a support for the head of the other is the scm of one of the most prominent and richest men in the pueblo, the other boy being the pauper referred to. The stanzas in this song were much longer than any before heard by the writer, and each closed with a quick shake of the rattle. The song continued an hour and a quarter, when the singers took a few moments' rest, and again sang for thirty minutes; another few minutes' rest, and the song again continued. In this way it ran from half past II o'clock until midnight. At its close one of the boys brought a vase of wati*r and a gourd from the southwest corner of the room and pla<*ed it near the altar and west of the line of meal. The ya'ni^siwittanni stood before the vase, aild, lifting two gourdfuls of water, emptied them into the medicine bowl; emptying two gourdfuls, also, into the cloud bowl, he danced for a time l)efore the altar, waving his plumes and rattle over it; he then emptied two more gourdfuls into the medicine bowl and two more into the cloud bowl, and resumed his dance. He did not sing while performing this part of the ceremony, but when emptying the water into the bowls he gave bird-like trills, calling for the cloud people to gather. Again he emptied two gourdftils into the medicine bowl and two in the cloud bowl; and after dancing a moment

108 THE SI A.

or two he i)oured two more gourdfuls into the metlicine bowl and two into the cloud bowl, and resumed the dance; again he emptied a gourdful into the medicine bowl and two into the cloud bowl ; then he emptied three into the medicine bowl and drank twice from the bowl, after . which he returned to his seat in the line, the boy restoring the vase to the farther corner of the room. Two small medicine bags were handed to each member from the altar, one containing corn pollen and the other corn meal of six varieties of corn : yellow, blue, red, white, black, and variegated. Tbe bags were held in the left hand with tlie eagle plumes, that hand being quiet, while the rattle was shaken with the right in accompaniment to the song. After singing a few minutes, pollen and meal taken from the medicine bags were sprinkled into the medicdne bowl. The choir did not rise and pass to the altar, but leaned forward on either side; and with each sprinkling of the meal and pollen a shrill call was given for the cloud people to gather; the ho'nasiite, in sprinkling in his pollen, reached over the altar slats. The sprinkling of the pollen was repeated four times, the novitiates taking no part in this feature of the ceremony, although they were provided with the bags of pollen and meal. The ya^ni^siwittanili danced before the altar and west of the line of meal without rattle or plumes, but continually hooted as he waved his hands wildly over the altar and dropped pebble fetiches altemat-ely into the medicine and cloud bowls, until each bowl contained six fetiches; then, reaching behind the altar for his rattle and eagle plumes, he held an eagle plume and rattle in the right hand and an eagle plume in the left, and stirred the water and sprinkled the altar; then he stirred the water in the cloud bowl with the reed, and sprinkled the altar with it. The sprinkling of the altar from the medicine bowl and the cloud bowl was repeated six times.

After each sprinkling a quick shake of the rattle was given. The ho'naaite then reached over the altar slats, taking a ya'ya in either hand, and all stood and sang. In a moment the man to the right of the ho'naaite leaned over the west side of the altar, and, dipping his plumes ill the medicine water, sprinkled the altar; he repeated the sprinkling four times, and when the two ya'ya were returned to the altar the ho'naaite dipped his eagle plumes into the medicine water, and sprinkled the altar by striking them on the top with the rattle held in the right hand. Each member then sprinkled the altar four times, with a wild exhortation to the cloud people, all apparently exhibiting more enthusiasm when sprinkling the altar than at any other time during the ceremonial. When the song closed two of the boys proceeded to prepare cigarettes, taking their places before the fireplace, and, tearing off bits of corn husks of the proper size, they made them pliable by moistening them with saliva. One boy made his cigarettes of native tobacco, which he took firom an old cloth hanging on the wall; the other filled his with commercial tobacco. As the boys made cigarettes they tied them with ribbons of com husks, simply to keep them

SHRINE OF KNIFE SOCIETY.

KTEVMisoif.l THE KNIFE SOCIETY. 109

in shape until the Hmokers were ready. The remaining native tobacco was returned to the old cloth and put in place u]K)n the wall. About the time the boys had finished preparing the cigarettes, the viceho'naaite took his seat on his wadded blanket^ in front of the cloud bowl and west of the line of meal. The man at the east end of the line dipped his eagle plumes into the ashes, holding a plume in either hand and striking the one held in the left hand on the under side with the plume held in the right, he sprinkled the hesid of the vicar, who was offering a silent prayer, and at the same moment the song ojiened to the accompaniment of the rattle. Previous to the vicAr leiiving the line, the ho'naaite removed a white fluffy eagle feather from one of the ya'ya, to which it had been attached with a white cotton cord, and tied it to the forelock of the vicar, who put into the cloud bowl the powdered root which wa^n to produce the froth ; then dipping the reed into corn pollen he sprinkled the altar. He placed a pinch of pollen into the upper end of the reed, and, turning that into the water, he put a pinch into the other end, and touched the four cardinal i>o]nts of the cloud bowl with the corn pollen, and msule bubbles by holding the hollow reed in the center of the bowl and blowing through it. This operation lasted but a few momenta, when he began stirring the water with the reed, moving it from right to left, and never raising the lower end to the surface of the water, producing a beautiful egg-like froth. Not satisfied with its rising high above the bowl, he did not cease manipulating until the suds had completely covered it, so that nothing could be seen but a mass of snowy froth ; fifteen minutes of continual stirring was re(|uired to produce this effect. He then stood the reed in the center of the froth, and holding an* eagle plume in each hand danced before the altar vehemently gesticulating. He dipped suds with his two plumes and threw them toward the alt^ir, with a wild ciy, and again dipping suds he threw them over the altar to the north; a like quantity was thrown to the west, and the same to the south, the east, the zenith, and the nadir. He then dipped a quantitv, and phicing some on the head of the white bear and putting some over the parrot, he resumed his seat on the blanket and began blowing through the reed and beating the suds. In five minutes he stood the reed as before in the center of the bowl, then, dancing, he dipped the suds, placing them on the head of the bear and over the parrot; he then removed the remaining suds from the plumes by striking one against the other over the bowl (this froth is always referred to by the Sia as clouds). During this part of the ceremony the choir sang an exhortation to the cloud peoples. A boy now handed a cigarette of native tobacco to the vicar, who puffed the smoke for some time, extending the cigarette to the north; smoking again, he blew the smoke to the west, and extended the cigarette to that point; this was rei)eated to the south and east; when he had consumed all but an inch of the cigarette, he laid it in front of the cloud bowl and east of the meal line. The

110 THE 81 A.

choir did not cease singing during the smoking, and when the bit of cigarette had been deposited, the vicar transferred his rattle to his right hand, keeping time with the choir. When the song closed he left his seat in front of the cloud bowl and stood by the; west side of the altar, and removing the eagle plume from his head returned it to the ya'ya and took his seat near the fireplace. Two of the boys then lighted cigarettes of native tobacco with the long firestick, handing one to each member.

In fifteen minutes the song was resumed and the man west of the ho'naaite dipped his eagle plumes in the medicine water and sprinkled the altar, repeating the sprinkling four times. In twenty-five minutes the song closed and the men enjoyed a social smoke, each man after lighting his cigarette waving it towards the altar. In twenty-five minutes the choir again sang, two boys standing in front of the altar, one on either side of the line of meal. The one on the west side of the line dipped his plumes into the medicine water and sprinkled the altar, and the one on the east side of the line dipped his crook into the medicine water and sprinkled the altar. They then dipped into the cloud bowl and threw the suds to the north ; dipping suds again the boy west of the line threw the suds to the west, and the one east of the line threw the suds to the east; again dipping medicine water they passed to the south and threw the water to that point, the boy west of the meal line crossed to the east, and the one on the east of the line of meal crossed to the west, and Returning to the altar they dipped suds, the boy to the west of the line throwing suds in that direction, and the boy east of the line throwing suds to that point; again dipping the medicine water they sprinkled to the* zenith, and' dipping the suds they threw them to the nadir; then the boy on the west of the line crossed to the east, and the one on the east of the line crossed to the west, and thus reversing x)08itions they repeated the sprinkling of the cardinal points, zenith and nadir, twelve times, dipping alternately into the medicine water and the cloud bowl. With the termination of the sprinkling the sohg ceased for a moment, and by command of the ho'naaite the boys, each taking a basket of ha'chamoni, which were resting on the backs of the cougar fetiches either side of the. altar, stood in front of the altar, one on the west side of the meal line and the other on the ^ast, and holding the baskets in their left hands shook their rattles; they then held' the basket with both hands, moving them in time to the song and rattles of the choir. The ho'naaite directed them to wave the baskets to the north, west, south, and east, to the zenith and the nadir; this they repeated twelve times and then deposited the baskets either side of tlie cloud bowl, and the vicar placed the bowl of medicine water two feet in front of the cloud bowl, on the line of meal, and taking one of the ya'ya in his left hand, he passed east of the line and, stooping low, he stirred the medicine water ^vith an abalone shell, and then passed his hand over the ya'ya and drew a breath from it.

SHRINE OF KNIFE SOCIETY.

8TKVKNSON.] RUD OF CEREMONIAL. Ill

•r

TLe man at i^e west eud of the Hue of worshipers now came forward and the vicar gave him a drink of the medicine water, then the man at the east eud of the line received a draft. The boy who threw the suds with the plumes came next, and following him the boy (tlie pauper) who held the miniature crook; then the third boy advanced and drank; the man on the left of the ho'naait^ following next, the ho'naaite came forward; he did not receive the water from the shell, but drank directly from the bowl; the vicar holding the bowl with his right hand placed it to the ho'naaite's lips, the ho'naaite clasping the ya'ya, which was held in the left hand of the vicar; he then taking the bowl with his right hand and clasping the ya'ya with his left, held it to the lips of the vicar, who afterwards left the room, carrying with him the remainder of the medicine water and the ya'ya. He passed into the street and, filling his mouth with the water, he threw a spray through his teeth to the north, west, south, and east, the zenith and the nadir and then to all the world, that the cloud people might gather and water the earth. In a short time he returned and placed the bowl and ya'ya before the altar. The shell was laid east of the line of meal and in front of the cloud bowl. A cigarette was then handed the ho'naaite and, after blowing the first few puffs over the altar, he finished it without further ceremony, and taking the two baskets of plume offerings in either hand he stooped with bended knees a short distance in front of the altar and west of the line of meal. Tlie two minor members wrapped their blankets around them and stooped before the ho'naaite on the opposite side of the meal line. The ho'naaite divided the offerings between the two, placing them on the blanket where it parsed over the left arm; these offerings were to Pai'alamo and Ko'plshtaia, and were deposited by the boys at the shrines of Koplshtaia (Pis. xxvi and xxvii). Food was now brought in by the boy novitiate, and with the feast the society adjourned at 3 o'clock in the morning.

Thv Sa4»joIa ni Mir QiifM^'Hiniiii hn?* n re^QoNl mnmhdrHhip o1 tiin^e —

nf>'rf4«Lm. H >v>y o\ h yt^t^TH, Tliwv |fi«iinr»Eramni iwv refirwwniiiid m Xhifi ^•A^tfoty-^Wfliri . >tnn, A.?iit ffmiid^mv. Tlfr oIAkt mwi is nnr of tIm* Tniwn »^fiil III ;*ia. i^ml, t4ion^)i lintimU^ oftbr Qimnriintin mid ricw^ nf xbt ^»nt\ At "^ iM'riAi>K m\i\ fr^^wmwwi by bti ^iwiplf* w htui^r aJniofn ah wNr nx Mh» OnMiK'' his rWmih ts tht iiiortt df»<ritiitr hi Sia. lieii^r ‹v%»iifv*›MiK MX ii IN. ot noiifirmhmtiH: miwi>Mtrs. Tits i^iiV^ is rd in valid : his i»lifo>l >miK fhr vioai at t4ir Qnnr^nnfi Sfuiittty. ts a paral^^i;. and n ymniunv naii ix h trfUiiH: fT>^#>1^. Tlw third nhftd is a daii^ht^iv whi» has hiMMi bUiwl rnai fiilUno>': >hi' is thp mnthnr iff Twr> ihi)dTfUi. bin has iM»>mv )wi>ii nmrHi»U. Vhv fniirnh nhiUl is n lO-war-ohl^irKminwitiiiM' is <«nir4iiiniv] in I4ir r»i.Yi' m Uir nbiidnui nit bnt blind ttiHUit. )iri]i^ifr fhv t^ih>i ibv tUaiih whi-, and ^inilii^rtbr luirn rtlw mntlitir aiid tii«mr iv^^HHioimlh as^iintiti^ in tlir ^rrinditif: and pTe|aiTiii|r tln^ inealH. whinii ^f%in»??^l. x^\U\ rati' tvira5?Uiiaix. nt a hnwl ornumh. nirriii^ tlif* phuftiiip ami b«5**?>Ai Miw^ thi' fUMmv ahaw a^iuuirti^ f4» tlnlH%)i)«. whiiii antiMUi amliMlot^oailtMijT!!^: and hi- ^^n^cs Himh luiiploynmin a^^ phii bt prarimftd fhwi h?s fvoph*. and iii Uii>i w*t\ t^(haii}r«v labnn iiir liaai. FiV<»T> blaif^n^; n; n'hUd ha?^ bMMi trmd^I far aiaiTialini^aa. until tlir liuiiih i^ fTNlwroNi t4. moti- iHfmiN tbT ^TrniMits. T^ar -rtt^yrnml yam^ tiiis luniih la^h^if^^. Ai. Mi( Tii»i^cM sturvHtiiat.and tin mf^ufpgrtttmt^ nf taad 4Lnd

h*M«l.»*T^a^HVL riwn ^arUiiw^ ftO^fVh 'whi» viAftisaHiait thi rsrtniitrv.. iai fn^MK. np^i his rrr<w«H. fc^rwi tht- HUh law^ an- man-iiNiA.t!i- U«aii tlw iMJM. ««hihlri>v »; *4n villajrv-.

«I^.:S»», :^ xviM. t^4 <^tJM"i ITiHpis. Thts. t^fvtf^wn. «aa> h^ rtitt r« fin

y»,%rw^is. !vr»«. hf^t-h^i*-ia.n4)*H‹a^rs 1ii«arr<^ajrM^t3lt«i. Nf›laAk o: ^rfMtf^iiiid

Th« hi.'>»i%>r<- rt MJh« ijtrr^v'rjla^'aji i> t^«'rtn|\ <armvm^ aMsn^ier o ' titt ■^"W•^»^)4i. hqv iuv uifi hHrtfofr- t<. tih( iVin rJaa«. jtm~: tiasjr nunUfr ■ o

wi- h?»r, 7»/». ftii/iojT tVi /»i:r8i-f rf»s * a. ftonSnaftTiKfl. 'ft: Wit ot>^i>)A» ti** t:h, #.)ft.j iv h^r; vof»/fMUr fi !;h( TtndtT: !iti> ft: <vnw«t£niimr Tii? Ar.' A /.mi'v intnt*.1i:^r. tfttnil' 7-^ f»rilj^ikr.ftry : I*- lN7iftr. «« "WlIU tlf l-iAl..

8TEVKX80N.1 QUERRANNA RAIN CEREMONIAL. 113

The house in which this family lives is small and without means of ventilation, and the old man may be seen, on his return from his daily labors, assisting his invalid wife and paralytic son to some point where they may have a breath of pure air. They are usually accompanied by the little girl leading her blind sister and c^irrying the baby on her back by a bit of an old shawl which the girl holds tightly around her.

Always patient, always loving, is the old man to those of his household, and the writer was ever sure of a greeting of smiles and fond words from each of these unfortunates. Not wanting in hospitality even in their extremity, they invited her to join them whenever she found them at their frugal meal.

The only medicine possessed by the Quer'riinna is se'-wili, which is composed of the roots and blossoms of the six mythical medicine plants of the sun, archaic white shell atid black stone beads, turkis, and a yellow stone.

The preparation of this medicine and that of the other cult societies is similar to the mode observed by the Zuiii. Women are dressed in sacred white embroidered Tusayan blankets, and they grind the medicine to a fine powder amid great ceremony. When a woman wishes to become pregnant this medicine is administered to her privately by the ho'naaite, a small quantity of the powder being put into cold water and a fetich of Quer'riinna dip])ed four times into the water. A dose of this medicine insures the realization of her wish; should it fail, then the woman's heart is not good. This same medicine is also administered at the ceremonials to the members of the society for the perpetuation of their race; and the ho'naaite, taking a mouthful, throws it out thnmgh his teeth to the cardinal points, that the cloud people may gather and send rain that the earth may be fruitful.

RAIN CEREMONIAL OF THE QUER'RANNA SOCIETY.

During the day ha'chamoni and plume offerings are prepared by the ho'naaite, and in the afternoon he arranges the altar, which is quite diftereut from those of the other cult societies, and makes a meal painting symbolic of clouds. Six fetiches of Quer'ranna are then arranged in line, the largest being about 6 inches, the smallest 3, the others griuluating in size; a medicine bowl is set before the line of fetiches; antlers are stood to the east of the meal painting; and baskets of cereals, corn on the cob, medicine bags, and a basket of ha'cha- moni and plume offerings are arranged about the painting. PI. xxvin shows photograph at time of ceremonial; PI. xxix, made in case of failure of the first, shows the meal painting, symbolic of clouds, which is completely hidden in the first photograph, and illustrates more definitely the feather decoration of the altar. The birds surmounting the two posts are wood carvings of no mean pretensions; the feathers by the birds are eagle plumes, and the bunches of plumes susjiended from

11 ETH 8

the cord are t4ul feathers of the female sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius) and the long-crested jay (Cyanocetta macrolopha).

The men and child have their forelocks drawn back and tied with ribbons of corn husks, the men each having a bunch of hawk and jay feathers attached pendent on the left side of the head. They wear white cotton breechcloths and necklaces of coral and kohaqua (archaic shell heads). ^ The woman wears her ordinary dress and several coral necklaces, her feet and limbs being bare.

The ho'naaite, removing a bowl of mciil from before the altar and holding it in his left hand, together with his eagle plumes and a wand, — the wand being a miniature crook elaborately decorated with feathers, — sprinkled a line of me^il from the painting to the entrance of the chamber, for the being of Quer'riinna to pass over.

The ho'naaite, his vicar, and the woman sat back of the altar, the ho'- naaite to the west side, the vice to his right, and the woman to the east side. At this time a child was sleeping near the altar.

The ho'naait^ filled an abalone shell with com pollen and holding the shell, his two eagle plumes, and wand in his left hand and rattle in the right, oflfered a long prayer to Quer'ninna to invoke the cloud i)eople to water the earth, and sprinkled the altar several times with pollen. At the close of the prayer he handed the shell of pollen to the woman, who passed to the iront of the altar and east of the meal line and sprinkled the altar with the pollen. The song now began, and the woman, retaining her position before the altar, kept time by moving her wand right and left, then extending it over* the alhir; each time before waving it over the altar she rested it on the shell for a moment; after repeating the motion several times, she extended the wand to the north, moving it right and left, and after resting it on the shell she extended it to the west, and the wand was in this way motioned to the cardinal points, zenith and nadir. The waving of the wand to the points was repeated four times: and the woman then returned the shell to the ho'- naaite, who had at intervals waved his plumes and wand over the iiltar. At this time the child awoke, and making a wad of his blanket sat upon it between the ho'naaite and the vicar; the latter supplying the child with a wand and rattle, he joined in the song.

The vicar being afflicted with paralysis could add little to the ceremony, though he made strenuous efforts to sing and sway his palsied body. The group presented a pitiful picture, but it exhibited a striking proof of the devotion of these people to the observance of their cult — the flickering fire-light playing in lights and shadows about the heads of the three members, over whom Time holds the scythe with grim menaces, while they strained every nerve to make all that was possible of the ritual they were celebarting; the boy, requiring no arousing to sing and bend his tiny body to the time of the rattle, joined in the emails

The portraits of the ho'naaiteii were made in mxrladed npot» in the wood. Th(^ hair is not arranged ma it is in the ceromoniala, fear of discovery preventing the proper arrangement and adornment with feathers. (PI. xxx.)

ALTAR OF SUER'-RAN-NA SOCIETY.

upon the cloud people to gather to water the earth with as much enthu- 8ia8m as his elders.

The song continued, with all standing, without cessation for an hour. The woman then brought a vase of water and gourd from the southwest corner of the room and plac*^d it in front of the altar on the line of meal, and the ho'naaite took from the west side of the altar four medicine bags, handing two to the man and two to the boy (pollen being in one bag and meal in the other), and giving the shell containing the pollen to the woman. She stood in front of the altar east of the line of meal swaying her body from side to side, holding her wand in the right hand and the shell in the left, keeping time to the rattle and the song. She emptied a gourd of water from the vase into the medicine bowl, imploring Quer'rjinua to intercede with the cloud people to assemble; the ho'naaite then sprinkled se'wili into the medicine bowl; then the little boy sprinkled ix)llen into the bowl, invoking the cloud people to gather, and the vicar, with the same petition, sprinkled the pollen. The woman then emptied a second gourd of water, first waving it to the north, into the medicine bowl, with a call for the cloud people to gather; the ho'naaite again deposited a portion of the se'wili into the bowl and his vicar and the boy sprinkled in meal, with an appeal to the cloud people; again the woman lifted a gourdful of water and waved it toward the west and emptied it into the bowl, invoking the cloud people to gather; and the others sprinkled corn pollen, the vicar and boy calling upon the cloud people to gather; the woman then waved a gourd of water to the south and emptied it into the bowl, and again the others sprinkled i)ollen, the vicar and boy repeating their petition; another gourdful was lifted and waved to the east and emptied into the bowl and the sprinkling of the pollen was repeated. The woman returned the vase to the farther end of the room (she officiated in the making of the medicine water, as the vicar, being a paralytic, was unable to perform this duty), and resumed her seat back of the altar; reaching forward, she removed two small medicine bags, and taking a pinch of pollen from one and a pinch of meal from the other, sprinkled the medicine water; after repeating the sprinkling, she tied the bags and returned them to their place by the altar. The ho'naaite, dipping his plumes into the medicine bowl, sprinkled the altar three times by striking the top of the plumes held in the left hand with the rattle held in the right. The sprinkling was repeated three times by the others while the ho'naaite sang a low chant. All now rose, and the ho'naaite continuing the song, moved his body violently, the motion being from the knees; as he sang he extended his eagle plumes over the altar and dipped them into the medicine water with a call for the cloud people to gather; he then dipped the bird feathers attached to his wand into the medicine water with a similar exhortation; the boy dipped the feathers attached to his wand into the water, striking them with the rattle, calling upon the cloud people to gather and water the earth; the ho'naaite

116 THE 81 A.

dipped his eagle plames twice consecutively into the medicine water, invoking the cloud people to water the earth; and the vicar dipped his feathers into the medicine water, making the most revolting sounds in his efforts to invoke the cloud people; the boy sprinkled with the invocation to the cloud people. The sprinkling was repeated alternately six times by each of the members, the ho'naaite pointing to the cardinal points as he continued his exhortation to the cloud people. After resuming their seats they sang until midnight, when the ho'naaite placed the ends of his feathers into his mouth and drew a breath and the woman laid her wand to the east side of the meal painting. The ceremonial closed with administering the medicine water, the ho'naaite dipping it with a shell. Owing to the depleted condition of the society, the duty of depositing the hii'chamoni and plume offerings fell to the ho'naaite himself.

OTHER SOCIETIES.

In addition to the thirteen cult societies of the Zuni they have the society of the Kok'-ko, the mythologic society.

It is obligatory that all youths beciome members of this society to insure their admittance into the dance house in the lake of departed spirits; first 6y involuntary and later by voluntary initiation. Females sometimes, though seldom, join this order. While the Sia mythology abounds in these same anthropomorphic beings, their origin is accounted for in an entirely different manner from those of the Zuiii. The Ka'- 8una of the Sia were created by Ct'sCt in a single night in the lower world. These beings {vccompanied the Sia to this world, and upon their advent here CTt'sCt directed them to go to the west and there make their home for all time to come.

They are solicited to use their influence with the cloud i)eople, and the dances of the Ka'^suna are usually held for rain or snow. It is the prerogative of the ti'amoni to control the appearance of the Ka'- ^suna. When a dance is to occur, the ho'naaite of the Society of Quer'- ranna selexits such men and women as he wishes to have dance and holds a number of rehearsals, both of the songs and dances. Those who are the most graceful, and who have the greatest jjowers of endurance and the most retentive memories for the songs, are chosen to personate the Ka'^suna regardless of any other consideration. Both sexes, however, must have been first initiated into the mysteries of the Ka'^^suna.

Previous to initiation the personators are believed by the Sia to be the actual Ka'*suna. The instruction continues from four to eight days, and during this period continency must be observed, and an emetic drank by the married men and women each morning for purification ftt)m conjugal relations.

Whenever the Ka'^suna appear they are accompanied by their attend-

1 There wore other Ka'tsftna, however, which were in the upper world before the Sia came. While the Sia can not acooont for their origin they are also personated by them.

HO'-NA-AI-TE OF QUER'-RXH-MA BOdETV.

8TKVKN90N.1 OTHER SOCIETIES. 117

auts, the Ko'shairi and Quer'raiiiia, wLo wait ujioii them, attending to any disarraiigod apparel and making the spe(»tatorH merry with their witty sayings and buff'cx^nery.

The Sia have a great variety of masks, wliich must be very okl, judging from their appearanee, and the priest of the Quer'raniia, wlio has them in charge, claims for them great antiquity. Pis. xxxi and xxxii illustrate some masks of the Ka'*suna.

When a boy or girl reaches the time when, as tlieir fathers say, they have a g‹K›d head, some ten or twelve yeiirs of age, the father first suggests to the ho'naaito of the Quer'riinna (if the father is not living then the mother speaks) that he would like his son or daughter to become acquainted with the Ka'*suna; he then makes known his wish to the ti^iimoni, and after these two have said, *' It is well," he sjiys to his child, "My child, I thirik it is time for you to know the Ka'^suna," and the child r(»plies, " It is well, father.'' The parent then informs the ho'naaite that his child wishes to know the Ka^suna, and the ho'naaite replies, "It is well." The next time the Ka'*suna come he may know them.

The ho'ruiaite prepares a meal painting for the occasion, covering it for the time being with a blanket. Upon the arrival of the Ka'^suua th(». father and child, and, if the child be a member of a cult society, the tiieurgist of the society, i)roceed to the ceremonial house of the (Juer'ranna. If the child possesses a fetich of the ya'ya he carries it pressed to his breast. Upon entt^ring the ceremonial chamber the child and attendants take their seats at the north end of the room near the west side, the ho'naaite of the Quer'ninna sitting just west of the meal painting, the boy to his right, and the parent next to the boy. The ti'amoni and ho'naiiite of warriors are present and sit on the west side of the room and about midway. The Sa'iahlia (two of the Ka'^suna) stamp about in the middle of the room for a time, then the ho'naaite leiuls the child before the meal painting, which is, however, still coveied with the blanket, and says to the Ka'^suna, "A youth [or maiden, whichever it may be] has come to know you." The Ka'*suna each carry a bunch of Spanish bayonet in either hand, and the child receives two strokes across the bat^k from each of the Ka'^suna, unless he be an official member of a cult society; in this case he is exempt from the chastisement. A boy is nude excepting the breech- cloth; a girl wears her ordinary clothing. The ho'naaite, addressing the Ka'^suna, says : " Now it is well for ycm to raise your masks that the child may see." One of the Sa'iahlia i)laces his mask over the child's head and the other lays his by the meal painting, the ho'naaite having removed the blanket. The personators of the Ka'^suna then say to the child : " Now you know the Ka'*suna you will henceforth have only good thoughts and a good heart; sometime, perhaps, you will be one of us. You must not speak of these things to anyone not initiated." The mask is then taken from the child's head and laid by the side of the other,

and the boy answers : "I will not speak of these things to anyone." The Ka'^snna then rubs the meal of the painting upon the child, and those present afterwards gather around the painting and rub the meal upon their bodies for mental and physical purification. The child deposits the ha'chamoni presented to him by the ho'naaite at the shrine of the Quer'ranna at the base of the village and to the west. The ha'chamoni is composed of eagle and turkey plumes. The child says when depositing it, "I now know you, Ka'^suna, and I pay you this ha'chamoni.'' The ho'naaite deposits a ha'chamoni for ea(^h member of the society at the shrine, which is in a fissure in a rock, and after the deposition of the ha'chamoni the opening is covered with a rock and no evidence of a shrine remains.

SOCIETY OF THE COUGAR.

This society is nearly extinct, its membership consisting of the ho*- naaite (the oracle) and his vicar, the former being also ho'naaite of the society of warriors; though aged, he retains his faculties perfectly and performs his official and religious duties with the warmest interest.

Previous to a hunt for game a two days' ceremonial is held by this society, and on the third morning ha'chamoni and plume offerings are deposited by the vice ho'naaite. The cougar is appealed to, as he is the great father and master of all game; he draws game to him by simply sitting still, folding'his arms, and mentally demanding the presence of the game; likewise when he wishes to send game to any par- ticular people he controls it with his mind and not by spoken words. Though the cougar sends the game it is the sun who gives power to the Sia to capture it.

It is the prerogative of the ho'naaite of this society to decide upon the time for the hunt. Ha'chamoni are deposited to the cougar of the north, the west, the south, the east to convey the messages of the Sia. If a rabbit hunt is to occur a rabbit stick and an arrow point are dei>osited as offerings to the sun. The offerings to the cougar of the zenith aYe deposited to the noi-th and those to the sun to the east. If the hunt is to be for larger game an arrow point only is deposited to the sun. The hunt may occur very soon after these offerings are made or not for some time, it being optional with the ho'naaite. He does not directly notify the people, but speaks to the war chief, who heralds his message. When announcement has been made of the prospective hunt a fire is made at night on the east side of the village and the selected huntsmen form in a circle around it; here the night is spent making plans for the hunt, in epic songs, and story telling, and, like other Indians, the Sia recount the valorous deeds of the mythical beings and their people in low, modulated tones. The hunt occurs four days from this time, and continency is observed until after the hunt. On the fifth morning, if the hunt be for rabbits, the men and women of the village prepare to join in the chase by first having their heads bathed'

^

8TBVEN80N.) SOCIETY OF THE COUGAR. 119

in yucca suds and then donning their best apparel; only men hunt for the larger game. Rabbits are hunted on horseback with rabbit sticks; deer, on foot and with the rifle in preference to the arrow.

A party of hunters which had been indicate<l by the war chief to hunt for deer and antelox)e lett the village in the afternoon, the party being led by the vice war chief. The ti'amoni was a member of the party. The ^vTiter mentions this as it is unusual for a ti'amoni to participate in the hunt, and it is claimed by the Sia that if their ti'timoni were not a mere boy he would observe the custom of his predeces- sors and decline to join in the hunt. The scarcity of game in this part of the country necessitated a three days' journey before any was obtained.

Pre^ous to the departure of the party the ho'naaite of the society of the cougar visited the house of each man who was to i^articipate in the hunt and embraced him, repeating a short prayer for success. The prayer was addressed first to the cougar, father of game, that he might send his children about the country, and afterwards to the sun to give power to the hunters to secure the game. The wives and relatives of the hunting party hiul been busy preparing food for them; each man's wife looked carefully after his personal needs. The wife handed the hunter's gun to him after he had mounted his horse, the unmarried man of the party having his gun handed him by his father.

The huntsmen were absent thirteen days, and upon their return a member of the party was sent in advance as courier to notify the war chief. The news brought general delight to the villagers, particularly to the wives of the hunters, who at once commences! preparing for their arrival. They reached the river about sundown, and upon crossing were received by the vice ho'naaite of the society of warriors and the war chief, who offered prayers and sprinkled meal in thanksgiving for the success and safe return of the hunters who grouped on the bank of the river. The younger children of the returning party were also on the river bank to meet their fathers, who at once took their little ones on the horses with them and exi)ressed much delight at again seeing them. The huntsmen then in single tile ascended the hill to the village, led by the vicar of the society of warriors and the war chief, the latter two being on foot, the war chief following the vicar. A man whose house was at the entrance of the plaza dropped out of the file to go to his home, and by the time he had reached the door his wife was outside to receive his gun and other luggage which he bore; this was the only greeting between the husband and wife. After the horsemen had crossed the plaza a second man entered his home, he being the vicar of the society of the cougar and son of the vicar of the society of warriors. The war chief then led the party until but one horseman remained, who upon reaching his home was assisted by the war chief in relieving himself and nnimal of their burden. Several of the women of the village embraced the ti'iimoni aft^ir he had dismounted, who, however,

seenw^

Buraau of Ethnology.

Eleventh Annual Report Plate XXXH

'•■.J^^"

r

•1 ;

'.. ti m

f

SIA MASKS

120 THE 8IA.

seemed perfectly absorbed iu his infant daughter, his wife's greeting, like those of the other wives, being simply to take first his gun and then his other traps from his horse.

The ho'naaite of the cougar society visited the houses of all the returned hunters, first entering the house of his vicar. The young man stood in the center of the room and the ho'naaite embra<.*ed him and repeated a x)rayer of thanksgiving for his success in the hunt and his safe return. The old man was then assisted to a seat upon a wadded blanket and the father of the hunter spread a sh'eepskin upon the floor, wool side down, and emptied the contents of the sack which was taken from the hunters horse upon it, which was nothing more than the desiccated meat and bones of an antelope. The aged man then took from his pouch a fetich of the cougar, about 3 inches long, and touching it to the meat of the antelope many times prayed most earnestly for several minutes. His prayers were addressed to the cougar, thanking him for his goodness in sending his children over the land that the Sia might secure them as payment to the cloud people for watering the earth.

In the next house visited the meat of the antelope was spread ui>on a bear's skin, the hair down. The skin of the antelox)e was folded lengthwise and laid by the side of the meat, and the skull and antlers placed at one end. The wife of the hunter laid over the skull many strings of coral, ko'haqua, and turkis beads, and afterwards spread a white embroidered Tusayan blanket over the carcass. A small bowl of sacred meal was deposited in front of the head. The aged uo'naaite repeated a prayer similar to the one he offered in the first house, not omitting placing the fetich to the antelope; he then clasped his hands four times over the skull of the antelope and drew a breath, after which the hunter lighted a cigarette for the ho'naaite who blew the first whiff over the antelope and extended the cigarette toward it. The ho'naaite repeated the prayer in the houses of the four successful hunters. The other two men were not overlooked, as he embraced them and repeated ^ prayer of thanksgiving for their safe return.' The war chief visited all of the houses, but did nothing more than sprinkle the antelope with com pollen, drawing in a sacred breath from the game, puffing the first whiff of his cigarette over it and extending the cigarette toward it.

When the game is shot, the hunter dips his fetich into the blood, telling it to drink. The blood is often scraped from fetiches and drunk in a little water to insure greater success in the hunt. There are specimens of such fetiches in Mr. Stevenson's collection in the National Museum. Some students, through their imperfect knowledge, have been led into the error of supposing from their new appearance that these fetiches were of recent manii&cture. The game is kept in the houses of the hunters until the following morning, when it is taken to the ceremonial house of the ti'amoni, the war chief de<;iding what day it shall

^ The aged ho'naaite has siuce died.

-9. *■

fH M

«

^

be distributed among the ho'naaites of the several cult societies. It may be one, two, or three days after the return of the hunters. At the api)oiuted time the ho'naaites assemble in the ceremonial house of the ti'jimoni, who divides the game, each ho'naaite carrying his portion to his ceremonial chamber. About noon of the same day the members of the cult societies assemble in their respective ceremonial chambers and prei)are lui'chamoni; at the same time, if the society has any female members, they place the game in a pot and cook it in the fireplace in the ceremonial chamber, but if there be no female members certain male members are designated for this purpose. Toward evening the slat altiirs are erected, and the night is spent in songs and supplications to the cloud people to gather and water the earth, lla'chamoni and the game are deposited before sunrise at four shrines — to the cougar of the north, the west, the south, and the east, that they will intercede for the cloud people to gather and water the earth. Ha'chamoni are also deposited to the sun father that he will invoke the cloud people to water the earth, and also that he will embrace the earth that the crops may grow. Others are deposited in the fields as payment to the cloud people for the services requested of them.

SOCIETY OF WARRIORS.

The Society of Warriors and the Knife Society have a ceremonial chamber in common; and in a certain sense these societies are closely allied, the former having had originally as its i)re8iding officers Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewC, the twin children of the sun, the latter society having derived its name fi'om the arrows which were given by the sun father to the invulnerable twins, and with which they destroyed the enemies of the earth. Each of these societies, therefore, has a share in the initiation of a victor.

The killing of an enemy is not sufficient to admit a man into the Society of Warriors; he must return with suclu trophies as the scalp and buckskin apparel. The victor carries the scalp on an arrow until he draws near to the village, when he transfers it to a i)ole some 5 feet in length, the pole being held with both hands. The victor's approach is heralded, and if it be after the sun has eaten his midday meal he must not enter the village, but remain near it until morning, food being carried to him by the war chief. In the morning the Society of the Knife, followed by the Warriors and the male populace of the town, join the victor. An extended prayer is offered by the ho'naai te of the Knife Society, and then, addressing the spirit of the enemy, he says : " You are now no longer our enemy ; your scalp is here ; you will no more destroy my l)eoi)le." The ho'naaite of the Warriors and his vicar respond, ''So ! So ! " The air is resonant the remainder of the day with the war song, there being occasional intermissions for prayers; and at sundown the ho'naaite of the Warriors and his vicar, with the victor, bearing the pole and scalp bi^tween them, lead the way to the village, followed by the members of tlie society, and then the Knife Society, led by its ho'naaiteand

122 THE 8IA.

his vicar. After encircling the village from right to left, the party enters the ceremonial chamber, when the scalp is deposited before the meal painting, the ho'naaite of the Knife Society having prepared the painting and arranged the fetiches about it in the morning before going to meet the victor. The two large stone images of Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewC, which are brought out only upon the initiation of a victor into the Society of Warriors, are kept in a room exclusively their own ; these pailicnlar fetiches of the war heroes are never looked upon by women, conseciuently they have remained undisturbed in their abiding place a number of years, the exception being when all the fetiches and paraphernalia of the cult of the Sia were displayed in 1887 for Mr. Stevenson's and the writei''s inspection. The members of the Knife Society sit on the west side of the room and the Warriors on the east side, the ho'naaites of the societies sitting at the north end of either hne, each ho'naaite having his vicar by his side, and the victor by the side of the vicar of the Warriors; he does not join in the song, but sits perfectly still. At sunrise the scalp is washed in yucca suds and cold water by each member of the Knife Society, and the Adctor's hands are then bathed for the first time since the scalping, and he proceeds to paint his body. The face and lower portion of the legs are colored red and the remainder black, and galena is then spread over the greater portion of the face. The Knife Society wears white cotton embroidered Tusayan kilts and moccasins, and the Warriors wear kilts of unornamented buckskin, excepting the fringes at the bottom and the pouch made from the buckskin apx)arel captured from the enemy. The victor wears the buckskin kilt, moccasins, and i>ouch, and he carries a bow and arrows in his left hand, and the pole with the scalp attached to it in the right. Each member of the society also carries a bow and arrows in the left hand and a single arrow in the right. The members of the Knife Society have gourd rattles in their right hands and bows and arrows in the left. The hair of all is left flowing.

An arrow point is placed in the mouth of the victor by the ho'naaite of the Klnife Society, and they all then proceed to the plaza, the members of each society forming in a line and the victor dancing to and fro between the lines, raising the scalp as high as the pole will reach, but he does not sing or si)eak a word. The numbers in the lines are increased by the men of the village carrying war clubs and firearms, keeping up a continual volley with their pistols and guns until the close of the dance at sundown. The women are not debarred from exhibiting their enthusiasm, and they join in the dance.

Upon their return to the ceremonial chamber the scalp is again deposited before the meal painting and the ho'naaite of the Knife Society proceeds with the final epic ritual which completes the initiation of the victor iuto the Society of Warriors, closing with these words: "You are now a member of the Society of Warriors,'' and he then removes the arrow point from the victor's mouth. The members, in conjunction with the victor, respond "Yes ! Yes ! "

i

BTEVBN80N.) SONGS. 123

The cotton shirt and trousers are then donned and the scalp is carried to the scalp-house (a cavity in the earth covered with a mound of stone) and deposited with food for the spirit of the departed enemy. A^ain returning to the ceremonial chamber, fast is broken for the first time during the day, when a feast, which is served by the female relatives or the victor, is enjoyed. After the meal they go to the river and remove all evidences of the paint upon their bodies. Continency is observed four days.

The few songs of the cult which the writer was able to collect are direct invocations for rain, or for the presence of zoomorphic beings in c^iremonials for healing the sick, a few words sufficing for many unexpressed ideas. The epic ritual of the Sia is so elaborate that much time and carefiil instruction are required to impress it upon the mind, and the younger men either have not the mind necessary for the ret^Ation of the ritual or will not tax their memories; therefore the web of Sia myth and religion is woven into the minds of but few.

The aged theurgists were eager to intrust to the writer the keeping of their songs, which are an elaborate record of the lives of their mythic heroes and of the Sia themselves.

The Sia sometimes adopt the poet's license in their songs and alter a word ; for example, the name for '* badger" is tuo'pi, but is changed in the sko'yo song for rain to tnpi'na, because, they say, the latter word renders the stanza more rhythmical. And, again, different words are synonymously used.

The hls'tiiin and quer'ranna have each a similar song of petition for rain, this song having been given to the hls'tiiin by the sun. It will be remembered that the name of this society indicates the knives or arrows of lightning given to the heroes by their sun father.

SONGS. A RAIN SONG OP THE SHU'-WI CHAI'AN (SNAKE SOCIETY).

1. lir*n'-na-ti 2. ITen'-na-ti shi'-wan-na lle'-iish He'-iish shi-wan-na

Pur' tu-wlsh-ta Pftr'-tu-wlsh-ta shi-wan-na

Kow-mots K5w-mots shi'-wan na

Kash'-ti-arts Kash'-ti-arts shi'-wan-na

Ka'-chard Ka'-chard shi'-wan na

(1) Translation: — Ilennati, white floating masks, behind which the cloud people pass about over ti'ni'a for recreation; He'iish, masks like the i)lains, behind which the cloud people pass over ti'ni'a to water the earth; Pfirtuwlslita, lightning people; Krtwmots, thunder peoi)le; Kashtiarts, rainbow people; Ka'chard, rain, the word being used in this instance, however, as an eniphatir invocation to the rulers of the cloud i)eoi)le.

(2) Shi' wanna, i)eoi)le.

124 THE >iIA.

Fret trannUitum: — An appeal to the prie«t« of ti'nia. Let the white flrmtiriK clonrli) — the HourLs like the plains — the lightning, thander, rainf>ow, and dond f>er>p]e8, water the earth. Let the people of the white floating r;]ond.s — the i»eople of the cload-s like the plain:) — the lightning, thunder, ra]nlK>w and cloud peoplet^-come and work for us, and water the eiirth.

3. Sha'-ka-ka 4. Sha'-ka-ka 8hi'-wan-na

Hhwi^ti-ra-wa-na Hhwi'-ti-ra-wa-na shi'-wan-na

Mai'-rrhina Mai'-chi-na fthi'-wan-na

Bhwi'-Hini-ha-na-we 8hwi'-si-ni-ha-na-we shi-wan-na

Marnh'-ti-ta-mo Marsh' ti-tamo shi'-wan-na

Mot' ri-ta-ino Mor'-ri-ta-mo shi'-wan-na

TrauMlation: — Hha'kaka, ftpmce of the north; Shwi'tirawana, pine of the went. Mai'china, oak of the soath. Shwi^Hinihanawe, a8i)en of the e^iHt. MarHh'titamo, c^e^lar of the zenith; Mor'ritanio, oak of the nadir.

(2) Shi'wanna, jH»ople.

Free iranHlaium : — Cloud prieHt who ascendH to ti'nia through the heart of the Hpnu5<5 of the north ; cloud priest who ascends to ti'nia through the heart of the ])ine of the west; cloud priest who ascends to ti'nia through the heart of the oak of the south; cloud priest who amMsnds to ti'nia through the heart of the aspen of the east; cloud priiist who aM<-45nds U) ti'nia through the heart of the cedar of the zi^nith ; cloud ]»riest who ^iscends to ti'nia^ through the heart of the oak of the, nadir; send your people Uy work for us, that the waters of the six great 0]>rings may impregnate our mother, the earth, that she may give to us the fruits of her Ix'ing.

Though the tn*^s of the cardinal points are addressed, the supplica tion is underst<K)d to be made to jiriestly rulers of the cloud i)eoples of the (mrdinal ]>oints.

5. Ifr^n'nati ka'shiwan-na

Ue'-Hsh ka'shi-wan-na

Pfir'-tu-w!sh-tji. ka'shiwan-na

Kr»w-mots ka'shi-wan-na

Kash-ti-arts ka'shi-wanna

Ka^ihard ka'shi-wau-na

ka'shi-waii-na (all people).

Free tranitlation: — All the white floating clouds — all the clouds like the plains — all the lightning, thunder, rainbow and cloud i>eoples,come and work for us.

0. Sha'-ka-ka ka'shi-wan-na

8hwi'-ti-ra-wa-na ka'-shi wan-na

Mai'chi na ka'-shi-wan-na

Siiwi' sini'ha-nawe ku'-shi-wan-na

Marsii'-ti-tii-nio ka'-shi-wan-na

M(»r'ritil-mo ka'-shi-wau-ua

Free translation: —

Priest of the spruco of tho north, send all yonr people to work for us; I*rioHt of the pine of the west, send all your people to work for us; Priest of the oak of the south, send all your people to work for us; Priest of the aspen of the east, send all your peoph? to work for us; Priest of the cedar of the zenith, send all your people to work for us; Priest of the oak of the nadir, send all your people to work for us.

7. llCn'-na-ti ho'-chan-iii

Ile'-ilRh lio'-chan-iii

Pftr-tu-wlsh-ta ho'-cbiin-iii

Kow'-mots bo'-cliau-ui

Kash'-ti-arts ho'-ehan-ni

Ka'-ehard ho'-ebaii-iii

Translation'. — llo'chanui, arch ruler of the cload priests of the world. Free translation: —

Ho'chiinni of the white tloatinp^ clouds of the world ;

Ilo'chiinni of the clouds like the plains of the world (referring to the cloud people

behind their masks) ; Ho'chiinni of the lifchtninj? peoples of the world; Ho'chiinni of the thunder peoples of the world; Ho'chjinni of the rainbow peoples of the world; Ilo'chiinni of the cloud peoples of the world — send all your peojdee to work for as.

8. Sba-'ka-ka luy-chan-iii

8hwi'ti-r{i-wa iia ho' ehau-iii

Mai'chi-ua ho'-chaii-ni

Shwi'si-ni-ha-iia-we ho'-chiin-ui

Marfth'-ti-tii-mo ho'-chaii-ni

Mor'-ri-ta-ino ho'-chiin-ni

Free translation: —

Ho'chiinni of the spruce of the north;

ilo'chiinni of the pine of the west;

Ho'chiinni of the oak of the south;

Ho'chiinni of the aspen of the east;

Ho'chiinni of the cedar of the zenith;

Ho'chiinni of the oak of the nadir; send all your peoples to work for us, that the

waters of the six ^eat springs of the world may impregnate our mother the

earth that she may give to us the fruits of her being.

A SONG OF THE SHU'WI OHAI'AN (SNAKE SOCIETY) FOB HEALING

THE SICK.

1. SkcV-to-we chai'-aii QuIft'-sCr-a chai'-an

Ka'-spau-ua chai'-iin Hu'-wa ka-chai'-an

Ko'-quai-ra chai'-au Ya'-ai chai'-au

Tran^latioH. — Siiako Society of the north, Snake Society of the west, Snake Society of the sioathy Snake Society of the east, Snake Society of the zenith, Snake Society of the nadir, come here and work with utiu

*»

Oo'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te no'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te

Ska'-to-we chai'-an Ka'-span-na chai-an Ko'-quai-ra chai'-an Quis-s^r-ra chai'-iin Hu'-wa'-ka chai'-an Ya'-ai chai'-an

An ap|M>al t4> the ho'-naaites of the snake societies of the cardinal lH>int8 to be present and work for the curing of the sick.

3. Mo'-kaitc chai'-an Ka'-kan chai'-an Ko'-hai chai'-an Tia'-mi chai'-an

Tu-o'-pi chai'-an Mai'tu-bo chai'-an.

An a)>|>eal to the <animals of the cardinal x)oints to be present at the ceremonial of healing.

4. Uo'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te Ho'-na-ai-te

Mokaitc chai'-an Ko'-hai chai'-an Tu-o'-pi chai'-an Ka'-kau chai'-an Ti-a'-mi chai'-an Mai'-tubo chai'-an

An appciil to the ho'naiiites of the animal societies of the cardinal l>oints to be present at the ceremonial.

A BAIN SONG OF THE SKO'YO CHAI'AN (GIANT SOCIETY).

1. Oher-Cs ti mu

Middle of the world below

ko wai' ya tu

door of shi'pa-po

;/

ar ya mi wa wa

my medicine is precious, it is as my heart

Ish to wa

Arrow of light* Ding

ti^ka *si mai ah kosh' te Sn

come to us echo

2. Kai' nu a we eh sha ka ka

Who is it "spruce of

north"

ti' ka ^si mai ah

come to us

3. Kai' nu ah we he

Who is it

ka' shi wan na ti

ail your people

ka' ru ^sin i ah

your thoughts

h^n' na ti

"white Hosting clouds"

ka' shi wan na ti ka' ru ^sin i ah ti' ka *si mai ah

all your people your thoughts come to us

ka' ru ^sin i ah

your thoughts

ti' ka ^si mai ah

oome tons

STEVENSON.]

SONGS.

4. Kai' nil ah we eh

Who is it

he' ash shi ^si ka' ni ^sin i ah ti' ka ^si mai ah

*' clouds like the your though U cooio to us

5. Kai' Du ah we he

Who is it

(). Kai' nu ah we eh

Who is it

ka' ru ^sTn i ah

your thou;;ht4t

ti' kit ^8i Tiiai ah

come to me

plains"

Ish to wa

"arrow of lightDing"

ha' a *si *si' at ^si fii ka' shi wan na ti ka'

"earth horison" all your people your

ru *8in i ah ti' kii Ksi mai ah

thought. come to us

Free translation. — We, the aneient ones, aseended from the middle of the workl below, through the door of the entrance to the lower world, we hold our songs to the cloud, lightning, and thunder peoples as we hold our own hearts; our medicine is precious. (Addressing the people of ti'nia:) We entreat you tu send your thoughts to us that we may sing your songs straight, so that they will pass over the straight road to the cloud priests that they may cover the earth with water, so that she may bear all that is good for us.

Lightning people, send your arrows to the middle of the earth, hear the echo (meaning that the thunder people are flapping their wings among the cloud and lightning peoples). Who is it (the singers pointing to the north)! The people of the spruce of the north. All your people and your thoughts come to us. Who is it! People of the white floating clouds. Your thoughts come to us, all your people and your tlroughts come to us. Who is it (pointing above) t People of the clouds like the plains. Your thought comes to us. Who is itt The lightnhig people. Your thoughts come to us. Who is it! Cloud people at the horizon. All your people and your thoughts come to us.

A SONa OF TUB SKO'YO CHAl'iN (GIANT SOCIETY) FOR HEALING THE

SICK.

Ah'..

1. Kai'-nu-a

. . ha ha .

Sand painting

.... we eh

Who is it

nu-ro-wa-ah ka'-*si-ma-ah

all i.s yours take away all disease

2. Kai'-nu-a we eh

Who is it

nu-rowa-ah ka'-^si-ma-ah

all is yours t«ke away all disease

3. Kai-nu-a we eh

Who is it

nu-ro-wa-ah ka'-*si-ma-ah

all is yours take away all disease

wa'-mi

mo'kai-ra

cougar

ho'-na-wa-ai-t<i

theurgiflt

ko'-hai-y a ho'-na- wa-ai- te

bear theurgist

tu'-pi-na ho'-na-wa-ai-te

badger theurgist

1«#,

THK KU.

a.-Uk-ii . .we eL

Wii*. i- It

Ld'-kau-ua

wwlf

lio' -ua- w a-ai-te

tbmirpin

ta'-iuiua bo'-ua-wa-ai-t^

cai{:li tbeurgiKt

iija'i'tu Iki bo'iia-wa ai-te

•iLii-w tbvurgist

uu-n*-n'<i-ai. Ka -'*isi-iua^ali

o. Kjt.-JlU-<i ¥;tf eL

uu-i-o-wa-aJi ka'-^8iiua-aij t. ILai-iiU'ii wv'f «L

Will, i- It

uu-ro-wa-aij ka -^tti-iua-ali

all I- ywurp mike aw My all Uiimmu**

/Vr< ifUH$i4ttion. — Lion iif the uoith, w** the KaDdpaiuti up which yon have iiriveii un (a v«»ice i^ heaid ;. Who i^ it ? " The lion." I am but yonr theui'irit^t; you ]io8bet^ all ]K»wer: lend u<e y<mr luiud aud yonr heart that 1 may ]ieuetrate the ll«^h and dJMMJver the disease. Thnm^h id€^- your theur|rif<t. take away all di^e^iKe.

Thit> a]>f»eal is it^i^eated U* each of the animals naiu(<l.

A RAIN «C»Ki; {}¥ THK Hlfc?TLiy f'HAl'A>' (KKIFE SOCIETY).

1. Ha -U^-we

' '-oni )ioltt‹i›

2. Ha -ta we

( 'iiru poUfii

l. Ha -t4* we

Coni )N»llfii

4. Ha'-ta-we

< 'urn iNiUrn

5. Ha'-ta we

fi. Ha -Til we

Ckmx |Nilltu>

WT -i-a-'se vu'-wa

jHuih fivrr iIm- tliert

ruiul

wr -ra-^se \m'-wa

|NftMh over lit* niari

w»r ra-*Ke

|NMh iri't'l tilt: riHHl

w*r ra ^K4

|iaj»- nvfi tillniHtl

ftt»r -ra-*«e

fMIMP liVitT tbi nuul

s<»r -ra-*se

fuMii (ivirr Uii' riNid

Iben

vu -wa

ihfnyu -wa

tb«n-

VU' wa

(bnn

VU wa

thrri

ti'ta-mi ka'-wash-ti-ma ko'-tu

uurth K]n-i2i£ (»f iIm Dorlh munntaiii

jKi'-na *6i -pin ko'-tu

we^t Rprinc **f lUDuntniu

tbi went

ko wa tow'-o-tu ma ko'-tu

mmth uprixti! of ih*- nmith iiifmutain

ha -na-mi ku-chiiu ko'-tu

ea<«t Hiirm^ of mnuiitain

the caiit

ti'*na-mi ko -wa-tu ma ko'-tu

rfuilh afirinc of the 7fnith inoiuitain

nur -ka-mi sti'-a-ohjin na ko'-tu

iiiulir (tprinp of tbe nadir nMiuntain

Frrt trattHlalioii — I'orn inillen pass over the north niad^ to the spring of the north numnlain, that the rlt»ud ])eople may as<'ond from the Kpring in the hiuirl of the mount:iin li* li nia and \v:itor the earth. The ftame is rtinratod f*»r the tivo rfUiaiiiiii)* eaniinal points.

A KA1^ 8i»NH Ol" THK lllSTlAN t ll.\l AN (KMVK StHlKTY).

Ho . - - Inii . hai lio

1. Yu-wa. . tj tji mi ku' \msIi iMim Mia kn ka ka'-shi

Thi'.n- iiorili i«fiii«t. m|>i uoi* ot iho north all cloud

wan. . na ha' ti

2. Yu wa jx» na Uii sh\u 1i la \m% \u\ Um shi

Tb<^ ui ibt *t»l

ha -ti

|illll- til Oh Mi<k(

•til

x\an . . . .na

JM»i»J»lr

I HfffT thr ^qyim tHiriuLIf |uthnn !«' iU* «.n «li i» ii I. nn ,.iit1.-, ««.i. ,,i ( li.« liitn«l.

8TEVKN80N.1 SONGS. 129

3. Yu'-wa ko'-wa-mi ''se-ya niai'-chi-na ka'-shi wan

Thero south gntLl oAk of the south all people

na ha'ti

where

4. Yu'-wa ha' ua-nii shwi'si-ui-ha-na-wo ka'shi

There east aspen of the east all

wan na hji 'ti •

po«»ple whom

5. Yu'-wa ti'-na-mi marsh'-ti-ta-mo ka'-shi wan na

There the zenith cedar of the senith all people

ha'-ti

where

6. Yu'-wa niir'-ka-mi mor'-ri-tamo ka'-shi wan na

There earth oak ol the earth all people

ha'-ti

where

7. Ho' hai hai ho'

The Quer'ranna has the same song.

Free Tranalatum —

1. Where are all the cloud people of the spring or heart of the spruce of the north! There in the north [the singers pointing to the north].

2. Where are all the cloud people of the pine of the westt There in the west [the singers pointing to the west].

3. Where are all the cloud people of the great oak of the south t There in the south [the singers pointing to the south].

4. Where are all the ch)ud people of the aspen of the eastt There in the east [the singers pointing to the east].

5. Where are all the cloud people of the cedar of the zenith T There in the zenith [the singers pointing upward].

6. Where are all the cloud people of the nadir f There [the singers pointing to the earth].

PORTION OP A RAIN SONG OF THE HISTIAN CHAI'AN (KNIFE SOCIETY).

Ha' ah oh hai e ar ha' ah oh hai e ar ^

1. Yu-wa ti'-i-ta shi'-pa-po ni'-ma mo'-kaitc ha'-ro-^se

There north entrance to ascended coufcar mafa

lower world

Ha' ah oh hai e ar ha' ah oh hai e ar

2. Yu-wa ti'-i-ta shi'-pa-po ni'ma ko'-hai-ra ha'ro-*so

There north entrance to ascended bear man

lower world

Ha' ah oh hai e ar ha' ah oh hai e iir

3. Yu-wa ti'-i-ta shi'-pa-po ni'-ma tu'-pi-na ha'-ro-^^se

There north entrance to ancended btidger man

lower world

Ha' ah oh hai e ar ha' ah oh hai e sir

4. Y''u-wa ti'-i-ta shi'-pa-po ni'-ma ka'-kanna ha'ro-*se

There north entrance to ascended wolf man

lower world

Ha' ah oh hai e iir ha' ah oh hai e ar

5. Yu-wa ti'i-ta shi'-pa-po ni'-ma ti-a'mi ha'ro-se

There north entrance to ascended eagle man

lower world

Ha' ah oh hai e \v ha' ah oh hai e ar

' Can not ho translated. 11 ETH 9

130 THE 81 A.

6. Yu-wa td'-i-ta shi'-pa-po ni'ma mai-tu-bo ha'-ro-*8e

There north entrance to ascended shrew man

lower world

An appeal to the animals of the cardinal points to intercede with the cloud people to water the earth. This song is long and elaborate. It begins by stating that their people, ihe cougar people and the others mentioned, ascended to ha'arts, the earth, through the opening, shi'- papo, in the north. It then recounts various incidents in the lives of these beings, with appeals at intervals for their intercession with the cloud people.

A RAIN SONG OF THE QUEE'EANNA CHAI'AN.

H6n'-na-ti he'-ash O'-shats Ta'-wac Mo'-kaitc ko'hai Tu-o'-pi

White floating clouds like sun moon cougar boar badger

clouds. the plains

Ka'kan Ti-ii'-mi Mai-tu-bo Ma'-a-se-we Uyuuyewfi Sa'-mai-hai-a

wolf eagle shrew elder war hero younger war hero name of warrior of

the north

Shi'-no-hai-a Yu'-ma-hai-a Ah'-wa-hai-a Pe'-ah-hai-a Sa'-ra-hai-a

name of warrior name of warrior of name of warrior of name of warrior name of warrior of the west the south the east of senith of nadir

Wai-ti-chan-ni ai-wan-ua-tuon-fii Shi'-wan-na-watu-un hi-an-ye

medicine water bowl cloud bowl ceremonial water vase I make a

road of meal

Hi'-ah-ar-ra hi'-a-mo-ni Hi-shi-ko-ya^sas-pa sho'-pok-ti-a-ma

the ancient road the ancient road white shell bead woman whirlwind

who lives where the sun descends

Sfis'-sls-tin-nako ya'ya ko'-chi-na-ko MSr'-ri-na-ko k(ir'-kan-iii-nako

creator mother yellow woman of blue woman of red woman of the south

the north the west

Ka'-shi-na-ko quls-s^r-ri-na-ko mu-nai-narko

white woman of slightly vellow woman dark woman of the nadir the east of^tne zenith.

Free translation, — White floating clouds. Clouds like the plains come and water the earth. Sun embrace the earth that she may be fruitful. Moon, lion of the north, bear of the west, badger of the south, wolf of the east, eagle of the heavens, shrew of the earth, elder war hero, younger war hero, warriors of the six mountains of the world, intercede with the cloud people for us, that they may water the earth. Medicine bowl, cloud bowl, and water vase give us your hearts, that the earth may be watered. 1 make the ancient road of meal, that my song may pass straight over it — the ancient road. White shell bead woman who lives where the sun goes down, mother whirlwind, father Sfts'slatlnnako, mother Ya'ya, creator of good thoughts, yellow woman of the north, blue woman of the west, red woman of the south, white woman of the east, slightly yellow woman of the zenith, and dark woman of the nadir, I ask your intercession with the doud people.

PEAYBE FOE SICK INFANT.

While the Sia have great faith in the i)ower of their theurgists, individually they make efforts to save the lives of their dear ones even after the failure of the theurgist. Such is their belief in the supplicatioiis of the good of heart, that the vice-theiirgist of the Snake Society, who is one of the writer's staunehest friends, rode many miles to solicit her prayers for his ill infant. He placed in her hand a tiny package of shell mixtnre done up in a bit of corn husk, and, clasping the hand with both of his, he said : *' Your heart being good, your prayers travel fast to the sun and Ko'plshtaia." He, then, in the most impressive manner, repeated the following prayer:

(1) Kuch(5r-plsh-tai-a (2) Ku-ch5r-na-ta-ni (3) Ku' ti ot se a ta (4) Pai'- ii-tii inoki-^channi (5) Ha'-mi ha'-notch (6) U-wamash-ta-ni (7) Ka'awinck (8) Ya'-ya (9) U-amuts (10 Ka'-a-wlnck (11) Sha'-mi winck (12) U-we-chai-ni (13) S^i na mats (14) fit to ni (15) *si tu ma iii to ni (16) Na' wai pi cha.

Explmmtion of prayer by governor for hut sick child.

(1) Your thoughts and heart are united with Ko'plshtaia; you daily draw the sacred breath of life.

(2) Your thoughts are great and pass first over the rofwl to the sun father and Ko'plshtaia.

(3) Our thoughts and hearts are as one, but yours are first.

4. A man of the world. ) ^ ,. . . ,, , ., ,

(5) Of the tobacco family. \ deterring to the child.

(6) You will be to the child as a mother, and the child will be as your own for all time to come; your thoughts will always be for one another.

(7) The hearts of ourselves and the child be united and as one heart henceforth ; those of us who pray for the cJuld will be known by the child and the child by us, even though the child has not been seen by us; we will know one another by our hearts and the child will greet you as

(8) Mother.

(0) Take the child into your arms as your own.

(10) That the hearts of ourselves and the child's be united and as one heart; henceforth those of us who pray for this (jhild will be known by the child and the child by us; though the child has not been seen by us, we will know one another by our hearts.

(11) May he have a good heart.

(12) May all good words come straight from his heart and i)ass over the straight road.

(13) While he is growing from childhood to youth.

(14) While he is growing from youth to manhood.

(15) And may he be valued as he grows from manhood to old age. (1()) May the child be beautiful and happy.

When one is ill from the heat of the sun he sprinkles corn x>ollen or meal to the sun, saying, "Father, I am ill in my head, it reaches my heart; I pay you with this meal; I give it to you as food, and will be thankful to you to take away my malady."

132 THE 81 A.

CHILDBIRTH.

One of the most sacred and exclusive rites of the Sia is associated with childbirth.

The accouchement here described was observed in May, 1890, at this pueblo. Upon discovering the woman to be in a state of gestation, the writer made every effort to obtain her consent, and that of the doctress and members of her family to be present at the birth of the child. She kept vigilant watch upon the woman and on the morning of the twenty-second learned that the event was imminent.

Ui)on inquiring of the father of the women the same morning why he did not go to the fields, he replied, " I can only sit and wait for the little one to come; I must be with my daughter." He was busy during the day making beads of bits of shells, reducing them to the proper size by rubbing them on a flat stone, afterwards piercing each piece by means of a rotary drill. The following day he sa't weaving a band to tie his grandson's hair. The woman worked as usual with her sewing and prepared the family meals.

After the evening meal (which was some time before dark) on the 22d, the family, consisting of the parents of the woman to be confined, her husband and two boys of 8 and 9 years, gathered in the family living room (this room being 15 by 35 feet). It was evident that the woman was regarded with great consideration and interest, especially by her fond parents, who by the way, were foster parents, the woman being a Navajo. At the time of the removal of the Navajo to the Bosque Bedondo, this child was left by her mother in the pueblo of Sia and has since lived with her foster parents.

On the evening of the 23d they gathered as before into the living room, which had been si)ecially prepared for the event. A small quantity of raw cotton, a knife, and a string lay upon a shelf, and the infant's small, wardrobe, consisting of a tiny sheet of white cotton, pieces of calico and a diminutive Navajo blanket, which were gifts to the child, were laid on a table in the farther end of the room. The family sat in anxious expectancy.

It is the woman's privilege to select her officiating ho'naaite theurgist, and if her husband or father be a ho'naaite, or vicar of a cult society, she usually selects one or the other, otherwise she requests her husband to visit the ho'naaite of her choice and ask his services; in the absence of her husband her brother goes. The woman, holding shell mixture^ in her right hand (when meal or shell mixture is used in connection with the dead it is held in the left hand), breather four times ui>on it, that the expected child may have a good heart and walk over one straight road, and then hands it to the bearer of her message to be presented to the ho'naaite, this shell mixture being the only compensation received for his services.

In this Ciise the woman chose her father.

Shell mixture and sacred meal are 8yiion3rmoua.

RITES WITH CHILDBIRTH. 133

At 9i oV-lock slie was »eize<I with the first stage of Inbor, and her mother at owe iiimle a fire in the fireplace, and a low, heavy Ht‹H›I, cut Aroin a solid block, was placed in front of it. The wonian took her seat upon the Ht<«)l, with her l)a<^k to the tire, wearing her cotton gown, woven dress and belt, and a small blanket around her.

The doctresK (Fig. 19) and siBter of the woman's husband, who had been summoned, arrived alniowt immediately. The father and husband removed their uioccasiiis and the women had ttieir legs and feet bare. The father took his seat ui)on a low chair in front of his daughter, the doctres» sat to lier left, clasping an ear of yellow and purple corn, and the writer by the side of the doctreas, holding a medicine- stone which had been given her some days previously by the doctress to be used on this occasion. The husband sat upon hiB wadded blanket against the

wall, and by bis side were his two sons and his sister, she having with her an infant and a child some 2 years of age. The night was wann and the door of the room was lelt open.

The ho'naaite laid three small buckskin medicine bags od the floor in fnnit of him (one contiiiuing shell misture, another the pollen of edible and medicinal plants, and the third a plant medicine powdered), and, holding the quill ends of two eagle plumes between his bauds, he repeated in a low tone the following prayer;

I'-i-wa-n-wak' nai'-she eh shan'-uai ha'-arts. Nai'-she-eh pitonipinamu-'sa. Na' waipicbauwak, I-iwauwak', na'-wai-pi-cha-n-wak.

Mlsli'-*cha hiit^h-'se ko'-ta-wa oh-wi-chai-ni u-wak. N5w'-a-mut8 Pit«-ni p'i namu-'sa. Ya'-ya ko'plsb-tai-a ha'-arts shan'-nai Nai'- she-eh u-wak', pi-to-ni pi-na mu-'sa.

Na'-wai-pi-cha n-wak.

The unexpressed idea is that the child is to be received upon its sand l>ed, which is symbolic of the lap of its mother earth. That it will be as one without eyes, and it will not know its father's Ko'plshtaia. May the Eo'plshtaia make its heart to know them.

Free translation : ^* Here is the child's sand bed. May the child have good thoughts and know its mother earth, the giver of food. May it have good thoughts and grow from childhood to manhood. May the child be beautiful and happy. Here is the child's bed: may the child be beautiful and happy. Ashes man, let me make good medicine for the child. We will receive the child into our arms, that it may be happy and contented. May it grow from childhood to manhood. May it know its mother tTt's^t, the Ko'plshtaia* and its mother earth. May the child have good thoughts and grow from childhocnl to manhood. May it be beautiful and happy.''

He then gave a pinch of the iK)wdered-plant medicine to the woman for the good health of the woman and child, and her mother, lifting ashes from the fireplace with her right hand, dei>osited them upon the floor in front of the woman. The father, then, standing, dippeil the ashes with his eagle plumes, holding one in either hand, and, striking the under side of the plume held in the left hand with the one held in right, threw the ashes to the cardinal x>oints. Each time, after throwing the ashes, he passed the plumes down each side of the woman. When the plumes are struck the ho'naaite says: Mlsh'^cha hiitch'^se k6tawa ohwichaini u^wak — ^^\shes man, permit me to make good medicine for the child.''

The ho'naaite discovers the diseased parts of the body through the instrumentality of ashes, and with the scattering of ashes to the cardinal points, physical and mental impurities are cast from those pres- ent and the chamlx^r is also purified.

Again the sprinkling of the ashes was repeate<l, but instead of running the plumes down each side of the woman, the ho'uaaite held them in his right hand while he stood to the right of the woman and, pointing the feather ends down, began at the top of the head and passed the plumes in a direct line in front and down the center of the body, with a prayer for the safe delivery of the child. At the close of this ceremony the doctress stood to the right side of the woman, and, placing the tip end of the corn to the top of her head, blew upon it and passed that also in a straight line down the center of the lK>dy, with a prayer that the child might pass through the road of life promptly and safely. This was repeated four times, when the doctress returned to her seat. The ho'naaite then offered a short prayer and placed a pinch of medicine in the woman's mouth, after which he left the house and went to the end of the placita and sprinkled meal to the east, ])iaying that the sun father might bestow blessings upon the child. In a short time the woman passed down the long room, apparently in ctmsiderable pain, but bearing herself with dignified comi>osure. Her mother

brought a cloth to tlie point where the ceremony had been held and emptied the contents (sand) upon the floor, and with her hands flattened the mound into a circle of 20 inches in diameter and some 5 inches deep. On this she laid a small black sheepskin, the sister-inlaw placed a bowl of water upon coals in the fireplace, and the mother afterward brought a vase of water and gourd and set it by the side of the fireplace. A urinal was deposited beyond the center of the room, and still beyond was a vase of fresh water. The mother spread a wool mattress at the south end of the room and upon it a blanket, and in the center of the blanket a black sheepskin, and a wool pillow was laid at the head; a rich Navajo blanket was folded and laid by the side of this bed. Now, all was in readiness and an early delivery was evidently expected. The woman would sit for a time either upon a low stool or a chair, and then pass about in evident pain, but no word of complaint escaped her lips; she was majestic in her dignity. But few words were spoken by anyone; all minds seemed centered on the important event to come. '* It was a sacred hour, too sacred for s]>okeD words, for S^s'slstinnako was to bestow the gift of a new life."

The whole aiJ'air was conducted with the greatest solemnity. At 11 o'clock the woman, whose suflering was now extreme, changed the small blanket which she wore around her for a larger one, which fell from her shoulders to the floor, and stood before the fireplace while the doctress standing behind her violently manipulated her abdomen with the palms of her hands. (The Zuni observe a very different mode of manipulation.) The ho'naaite, who no longer a^ted professionally, but simply iis the devoted father of the woman, took his seat upon a stool on the far side of the sand bed from the fireplace, the woman kneeling on the sand bed with her biick to the fireplace and the doctress sitting on a low stool back of the woman. The woman clasped her hands about her father's neck and was supported at the back by tlie doctress, who, encircling the woman with her arms, pressed upon the abdomen.* The father clasped his hands around his knees, holding a stone fetich of a cougar in the palm of the right hand, and the sisterin law, standing to the left of the woman, placed the ear of corn to the top of the sufi'erer's head and blew upon it during the periods of pain, to hasten the birth of the child. The prayer that was blown into the head was supposed to pass directly through the passageway of life. After each paroxysm the woman rose and passed about the room in a calm, quiet way. Sometimes she would sit on a low chair; again she would sit in front of the fire toasting her bare feet, and then leaving the extremely warm room

'After 11)0 reli<2:ioiis nervieea it io usual for the ho'naaite to absent himself, oven though he be the wouian'H huHband or father: his remaining being an evidence of unuHual devotion. Ihe mother-inlaw may bo pre.sent at childbirth, but not the father-iu-law unless he be the chosen ho'naaite for the occasion, and hiA affection for the daughter-in-law prompting him to remain, this, however, \temg verj' rare. "Should the expectant mother fail to bend her thoughts upon the event to come the child would not can; to lie horn and would lie still and die. " It is rare for a Sia woman to die in childbirth ; or for a child to be Htillbom.

would walk about outside of the house. The pains were very frequent for three hours, the longest interval being thirty minutes, the shortest thirty seconds, the average being ten minutes, the pains continuing firom three to twenty minutes. Though her suffering was great, nothing more than a smothered groan escaped her lips. The doctress seemed i)erfectly ignorant and unable to render any real assistance.

The only attempt made by the doctress to hasten the birth was an occasional manipulation of the abdomen, after which she placed the ear of corn at the head of the woman, and after blowing upon it passed it down the middle of the body four times, as before, and the heating of the i)er80ti by heaping a few coals ux>on the floor and putting upon them cobwebs, the woman standing over the coals while the mother held the blanket close around her feet. This failing in its desired effect, scrapings from one of the beams in an old chamber were placed on coals, the woman standing over the coals. It is claimed by the Sia that these two remedies are very old and were used when the world was new. After a time a third remedy was tried — the fat of a castrated sheep was put on coals heaped in a small bowl, the woman also standing over this — but all these remedies failed. The woman occasionally assisted herself with a circular stick 4 inches in length wrapped with cotton. After 2 o'clock a. m. the father became so fatigued that the sister-in-law, instead of blowing ui)on the corn, stood back of him and supported his forehead with her clasped hands. The ear of corn, when not in use, lay beside the sand bed. As the night waned the woman gradually became more and more exhausted, and at half past two the mother laid several sheepskins upon the floor and on these a blanket, placing two pillows at the head of this pallet, and then taking a pinch of meal from the bowl which was at the right side of the bed, which had been prepared for use after the birth, put it into the right hand of the woman, who now knelt upon the sand bed, leaning ux)on her father's shoulder while he, in the deepest emotion, stroked her head. As the woman received the meal she raised her head and the sister-in-law handed the ear of corn to the father, who held it between his hands and prayed, then running the corn from the crown of the woman's head down the body in a direct line and holding it vertically while the woman sprinkled the meal upon it and prayed to t^t's^t that she might pass safely through the trials of parturition. She was now so exhausted that she was compelled to lie on the pallet; twice she raised from the pallet and took position for delivery.

The two babies of the sister-in-law slept on blankets, and the two sons of the woman who had been sent from the room early in the evening had returned and were also sleeping on rugs. At 4 o'clock the parents, in alarm at the interrupted labor, sent for a prominent ho^naaite, and the husband of the woman, who had left the room at the ap- proach of extreme labor. The husband, in company with the ho'naaite, soon appeared, the former removing both his moccasins, the latter the

8TBVEK80N.) RITES WITH CHILDBIRTH. 137

one from his right foot only. The newly arrived ho'naaite sent the sister-in-law for a small bowl of water, and into this he sprinkled a pinch of medicine (a specimen of this root was obtained) and then requested the woman to drink the water. It was with difficulty that she stood while she drank the medicine, and allowed the ho'naaite to practice his occult power, blowing upon the head and then blowing in a straight line down the center and in front of the body. The blowing was repeated four times, when the ho'naaite, standing back of the woman, put his arms around her, pressing hard upon the abdomen. After repeating a short prayer he replaced his moccasin and left the room, and the woman sank exhausted to her pallet, where she lay in a semiconscious condition until half past 5 in the morning.

Fetiches of Quer'ranna and of the cougar had been placed under her pillow and a third fetich (a concretion) in her right hand. The father kept a constant vigil, while the anxious mother moved quietly about seeking to relieve the woman by many little attentions. The mental agony of the parents was great, the more intense sufferer being the father, whose devotion to his daughter through her entire illness seemed without precedent. At half past 5 the woman opened her eyes and, raising herself, clasped her father's neck and made another great eftbrt, and failing, she returned to her pallet, weeping from sheer discouragement. After a time the mother induced her to sit up and take food ; a basket of waiavi and a piece of jerked meat which had been broiled over the coals in the same room were plac*ed by the bed, when the mother hastened to another room for the corn-meal gruel she had prepared. (During the time this gruel is boiling it is dipped with a gourd and held high and poured back into the pot; after it is removed from the lire it is passed through this same process for some time. When it is ready to drink it is light and frothy. 'J'he mixture is composed of corn meal and water.) The woman ate quite heartily and drank two bowlfuls of the gniel. She had hardly finished her meal when she requested her father to hasten to his seat, and kneeling ui>on the sand bed she clasped his neck as before; the pain lasted but a minut'C and she returned to her bed. She was scarcely down, however, when she jumped up and knelt beside the pallet, the child being born by the time the woman's knees had reached the floor, the birth occurring at half past 6 o'clock. The excitement was great, as the birth at this moment was a surprise. The father was too absorbed in his daughter to think much of the infant, but the pld mother was frantic for fear the child would be smothered. The writer was called to hasten and rub the father's moccasin down the woman's back; the toe of the moccasin must be downward. This was to hasten the passage of the placenta, which promptly followed. A sheepskin was with diiticulty gotten under the child, and finally the skin was pushed forward as the woman raised herself, and the child was taken by the doctress. The woman stood while the doctress raised the child and

•

the sister-in-law the placenta four times to her face, as she expressed the wish that the umbilical cord might be severed without danger to the child. She then deliberately removed her belt and woven dress and walked to the bed which had been prepared for her and lay down.

The husband of the woman gave an extra sharpening to the knife which had lain upon the shelf, and handed it to the doctress, who, first placing the child upon the sand-bed, tied the umbilical cord an inch and a quarter from the umbilicus, and after cutting it removed the child, while the sister-in-law laid the placenta upon the sheepskin and swept the sands of the sand bed upon a piece of cloth, placing the latter on the back of one of the little boys. Taking half of the raw cotton from the shelf, she laid it on the placenta, with the wish that the umbilicus might soon be healed; and folding the sheepskin, she deposited it in a shallow bowl, and taking a pinch ot shell mixture in her right hand she carried the bowl from the house, followed by the boy. The sand and plaeenta were cast into the river; the woman sa3ing, "Go! and when other women bear children may they promptly follow," referring to the placenta.

To the doctress was brought a bowl of warm water, with which she bathed the child ; then a bowl containing yucca and a small quantity of cold water and a vase of warm water were set by her, and after making a suds with the yucca she added warm water and thoroughly cleansed the child's head, and then bathed the child a second time, in yucca suds, and taking water into her mouth from the bowl, she threw a solid stream over the child for a remarkable length of time. The child was rubbed with the hand, no cloth being used in the bathing. The greatest care was observed in cleansing the infant, who was afterward wrapped in a blanket and patted dry. During the bathing the grandparents, father, and brothers of the little one looked admiringly upon it, with frequent expressions of delight. The remaining portion of the umbilical cord was drawn through a wad of raw cotton, which was wrapped closely about it, and ashes were then rubbed over the child. The infant, a boy, weighed some 8 or 9 pounds, and its head was covered with a profusion of black sDky hair; it had quite a perceptible red mark covering the center of its forehead. It seemed brighter from its birth than children of ci\ilized parentage, and when twenty days old was as observing as many of our children at two months.

The cradle was brought forward by the grandfather, and the diminutive Navajo blanket spread over it. The tiny sheet was laid on the doctress's lap under the child. The writer was then requested to rise and receive the child; and as she held the little one wrapped in the sheet the grandfather offered a prayer of thanksgiving, and after sprinkling meal upon the writer gave her a pinch of it. She could not dream what was expected of her, but she ventured to make four lines on the child's breast, and sprinkled the remainder of the meal to the east. The venture was a happy one, for it was just right. The grandfather

8TEVENSON.J KITES WITH CHILDBIRTH. 139

said: "The eliild is yours; I make it a gift to you." The writer then returned the (•hild to the doctress, and the grandfather proceeded to arrange the cradle, which has a transverse ridge, provided with a niche for the neck. Two bits of calico, folded several times, were laid on the blanket, and on this a piece of white cotton. The infant was placed nude upon its bed, and a pie(;e of white cotton was laid over it from the neck to the lower part of the abdomen, extending on either side of the body and passing under the arms, the ends of the cloth being folded over the arms and tucked in on the inner sides. The little sheet was laid over the child, and the blanket folded around it; and then it was strapped to the cradle, which was deposited to the left side of the mother, on a white sheepskin. The ear of corn which had been such an important element previous to the birth was laid by the right side of the child. The grandfather, taking his seat at the loot of the cradle, deposited before him the three medicine bags which had been used in the ritual previous to the birth, and, holding his eagle plumes in his right hand, repeated a prayer. Two loosely twisted cords of native cotton, which had been prepared by the father of the infant immediately after the birth of the child, were placed under the mother's pillow, to her right side ; these were afterwards tied around the ankles of the infant, to indicate that it was a child of Sus'slstinnako and that it might know this father. After the prayer the grandfather touched the head, either side and foot of the cradle, and the child's body, with a speiir point of obsidian; this was repeated four times for strength of body, limbs, heart, and mind of the child; and the spear was pavssed over the mother's limbs and body for the same purpose. The grandfather then gave the child its first food by placing in his own mouth a pinch of a specially sacred and valuable medicine composed of the i)ollen of medicinal and edible plants and tmnsferring it into the infant's mouth from his. He then placed a bit with his fingers in the mother's mouth. The medicine was given to the child that he might know all the medicines of the earth, and to the mother that her milk which was to nourish the infant might be good, so that the child's heart and mind would be good.

No attention was given to the woman by the doctress for two hours after the birth, when a fresh gown was put on, the gown being changed every morning and evening for ftmr days, the one worn in the evening having been washed and dried the same day. The sheepskin on the bed was changed daily. About 0 o'clock a. ni. the grandmother i)repared a bowl of tea made from freshly gathered cedar twigs steeped in water, and the woman drank two gourdfuls. This tea is constantly drunk for a designated period, which difters with different clans; some drinking it regularly for four months, others taking it but three, and some only two months. No water is drunk during the time this liquid is used, and continency is observed for the two, three, or four months ; the husband, however, sleeps during this time in the same room, and in this X>articular case the husband slept by his wife's side. Should a woman

140 THE 81 A.

break the continency, an animal would enter her abdomen and she would surely die, for so said the first mother of her elan.

After the first draft of the tea the woman ate a hearty breakfast of tortillas, jerked meat, and corn-meal gruel. Her female relatives and friends called to see her and the baby during the day, and she chatted as merrily as if nothing had happened.

The Sia infant is nourished regularly from the time it is born; and in this particular case the infant was nursed by a woman whose child was three months old, until the third morning, when the mother took it in charge. Though the door of the room could not be left open until the child should have passed out the fourth morning to see its sun father, and the two small windows being stationary, the most fastidious could have found no fault with the purity of the atmosphere. The father of the woman scarcely left her during the four days. He sat by her bedside, weaving garters, and showing her the tenderest care, and her mother did little else than look after the wants of the invalid and infant and admire and caress the latter. The woman's husband was absent all day working in the fields, but upon his return in the evening he could be found by his wife's side admiring the baby and saying pleasing words to the woman of his choice. The family all slept in the same room as usual with the addition the first two nights of the woman engaged to furnish nourishment to the child, who also had her infant with her.

By half-past 4 on the fourth morning the woman had donned her woolen dress and belt and sat upon the bed awaiting the arrival of the doctress, who soon came, and after a greeting handed ashes from the fireplace to the woman, who receiving the ashes in her right hand rubbed her legs and breast for purification, and then put on her moccasins. The grandmother took the infant from the cradle and wrapping it in its blanket handed it to the doctress, while the father of the woman gave her the two stone fetiches from under her pillow, which she placed in her bosom. The doctress then took from the fireplace a bit of charcoal and put it into the woman's mouth that the cold winds might not enter through her mouth and congeal her blood and prevent its flow, for should this occur the woman would surely die. The father then handed sacred meal to his daughter and the doctress, and again helping himself he gave some to the writer. The doctress led the way, carrying the infant in her arms and pressing to its breast the ear of corn which had played such an important part during parturition, and had since lain by the side of the child ; the woman followed, also carrying an ear of com, a companion of the first ear (everything associated with life must have its dual, and " corn is life itself, for it comes from the heart of Ot's6t; were it not for the mother com none could live." These two ears of corn are afterwards wrapped together and laid under the child's cradle, where they must remain until the next corn-planting time, when it is sown in two or four rows, apart from the main field, and wheu ripe it

Bureau of Ethnology.

...tprTi. ,-, ^'-5,,.

HI. Huun»<MtNT WHEN RECEIVED INTO THE THIRD DEGREE OF OFFICIAL MEMBERSHIP CULT, SOCIETY,

8TBVEN80N.1 RITES WITH CHILDBIRTH. 141

is eaten by the child, who takes the iioiirishineut of the motlier corn as it draws the milk from its mother's breast). The writer foUowed after the woman and, passing a few feet to the right of the entrance after leaving the house, they st(K)d while the grandfather went from the door directly to the eastern gateway of his placita and stood facing east, where he was joined by the others, the doctress leading the way ; she stooped at his right. The father of the infant was not present any of the time and the grandmother did not leave the house. The grandfather prayed and sprinkled meal to the east (PI. xxxiii); the mother then whispered a short i)rayer and sprinkled meal to the same point; the doctress afterward stooi^ing until she almost sat ujwn the ground bared the child's head as she held it toward the rising sun and repeated a long prayer, and a<ldres8ing the child she said, '* 1 bring you to see your sun father and Ko'pishtaia that you may know them and they you." At the close of the prayer she led the way to the house, and upon entering the woman sat on her bed with her legs extended and received the infant from the doctress, who laid the child a<*ross the mother's arms with its head to the east; the doctress then laying the ear of corn lengthwise on the child's breast re(piested the writer to hold the corn with her. The grandmother and the two boys stood to the left of the woman while the grandfather standing at the fe^t of the child offered a prayer. The doctress then repeated the long baptismal prayer, naming the child.'

She then placed the infant in the writer's arms, saying, *'The <*hild is named; it is yours." When the child was returned to her she washed iti^ head in yucca suds, and bathed its body by again tilling her mouth with water an<l spirting it over the child. It was afterwards rubbed with ashes, especially about its face, and the doctress gave it some warm water to drink by dipping her fingers into the vase and letting the drops fall from them into the infant's month; the child smax-ked its lips in evident satisfaction; and it was then strapped to the cradle which was handed the doctress by the grandmother; and the child in the cradle was placed on the mother's lap, and she proceeded to nourish it.

The grand fat lier brought an Apache basket containing a i)yramid of meal and held it to the infant's face, then to the mother's, who blew upcm the meal. The grandmother then blew upon it (that it might be blessed with the best thoughts of the breath of life) and, stooping, the grandfather held the basket with both hands while the doctress (Fig. 19) held it on the opposite side with her two hands, the grandfather whisper, ing a prayer and then retiring to the far end of the room. The doctress oflered a silent prayer, and -left the room without farther ceremony, carrying the basket of meal, which was a gift to her from the infant, it

'The (l«M'tre88 iiaiurM all iiifant^i, onn numc usually Horving the female through life, hut the male may hav»^ u plurality of iiaiii<>H: for example, upon his return aft^'r a long Journey, or after having performe<l houw valorous <l»'tMl liiH head is bathed in yucca Huds hy Bome female member of the cult society to which he Ix'longH. or hy a memher of his clan, when she bestows an appropriate name.

being her only compenBation fur her services. The mother of the infant ate heartily aud at half-past seven in the morning slie walked fully 200 yards from the house down a declivity; and on her return to the house waR bathed for the first time sin<re her confinement, she herself doing the bathing.

Fig. 20 is the copy of a photograph of the infaut the fourth m<>rnin^ after birth.

The lochial discharge ceased aft«r the fourth day, and from this time until the expiration of the nine days but one fresh gown was worn eai-h day. The infant was bathed each of the first four mornings by the doctress, and afterwards by the grandmother until the tenth morning, when the mother bathed thechild. The infant's bed was changed several times daily, the bedding being put upon the cradle a couple of hours after washing. The night of the fourth day the doctress came about

—Mother irlth

9 o'clock and bathed the child; the ashes wliich had been applied to the child fW>m its birth after, each bath not being omitted. The fifth day the skin of the infant showed evidence of exfoliation, aud the grandfather remarked, "Wheu the new skin comes then all will be well." The sixth day the remnant of the umbilical cord was removed by liflaug the raw cotton, and a finely powdered pigment of bluish-gray color was rubbed upou the umbilicus and a cotton cloth laid over it. Wheu there is any appearance uf suppuration the mother milks a few drops fi-om her breast upon the umbilicus and applies fresh pigment.

Prof. F. W. Olark furnishes the following analysis of this pigment: "A slight amount is soluble in water, this consisting of sulphates of

lime and magnesia. The main portion consists of a mixture of a hydrous carbonate of copper (presumably malachite) with a ferruginous sand. The copper mineral dissolves readily in dilute acids and, in addition to the copper, contains traces of iron and of phosphoric acid, l^robably an impure malachite pulverized."

Though the woman is considered an invalid and exempt from all household duties until the tenth morning after childbirth, she passes in and out of the house after the fourth morning and oc-cupies herself sewing, not more than half of her time being spent in a reclining position.

The greatest attention was shown this woman and her child by her father, mother, and husband, the two men performing the most menial services for her and frequently waiting upon the infant.

MORTUARY BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS.

It was stated in a previous chapter that the Sia do not believe in a return of the spirits of their dead when they have once entered Shipapo. There was once, however, an exception to this. The story is here given in the theurgist's own words:

'^ When the years were new and this village had been built perhaps three years, all the spirits of our dead came here for a great feast. They had bodies such as they hfid before death 5 wives recognized husbands, husbands wives, children parents, and parents children. Just after sundown the spirits began arriving, only a few passing over the road by daylight, but aftei* dark they came in great crowds and remained until near dawn. They tarried but one night; husbands and wives did not sleep together; had they done so the living would have surely died. When the hour of separation came there was much weeping, not only among the living but the dead. The living insisted upon going with the dead, but the dead declared they must wait; that they could not pass through the entrance to the other world; they must first die or grow old and again become little children to be able to pass through the door of the world for the departed. It was then that the Sia first learned all about their future home. They learned that the fields were vast, the pastures beautiful, the mountains high, the lakes and rivers clear like crystals, and the wheat and cornfields flourishing. During the day the spirits sleep, and at night they work industriously in the fields. The moon is father to the dead as the sun is father to the living; the detid resting when the sun travels, for at this time they see nothing; it is when the sun returns to his home at night that the departed spirits work and pass about in their world below. The home of the departed spirits is in the world first inhabited by the Sia."

It is the aim of the Sia to first reach the intermediate state at the time the body ceases to develop and then return gradually back to the first condition of infancy; at such period one does not die, but sleeps

to awake in the spirit world as a little child. Many stories have come to the Sia by those who have died only for a time; the heart becomes still and the lips cold and the spirit passes to the entrance of the other world and looks in, but it does not enter, and yet it sees all, and in a short time retams to inhabit its earthly body. Great alarm is felt when one returns in this way to life, but much faith is put in the stories afterwards told by the one who has passed over the road of death.

A ho^naaite holds a corresponding x)osition in the spirit world.

When a death occurs any time before sundown, the body is buried as soon as it can be prepared for the grave; but if one dies after dark the body must not be touched until after sunrise, when it is bathed and buried as soon as ])ossible. It is usual for an elderly woman of the clan to bathe the body, cold water being used; the head is washed first in yucca suds. Sometimes, however, this method is deviated from, if the remaining wife or husband has a special fi*iend in some other clan. In the case of a man the breechcloth he has worn during his last illness is not removed. The immediate relatives in consanguinity and clan are present during the bathing and make the air hideous with their lamentations. The body is bathed on the bed upon which the party dies and here it remains until burial. The mourners are seated around the room, no one being near the bed but the woman who prepares the body for burial. If the corpse be a female, after the body is bathed a blanket is laid across the abdomen and limbs and tucked in on either side, the upper portion of the body being exposed.

The official members of the cult societies are painted after de^th, just as they were at their initiation into the society, the body having been previously bathed. The one exception to this rule — ^being the ho'naaite of warriors (PI. xxxiv) — will show the change. The painting is done by the ho'naaite or vicar of the society to which the deceased belonged. Corn pollen is sprinkled on the head. Female officials have only their faces painted. When a man is not an official, neither his face nor body is painted, but as each man or woman of his clan looks upon the body a bit of corn x)ollen is sprinkled in a line under each eye and on the top of the head. While the body is being prepared for burial, the relatives who are present, amid lamentations, cut the apparel of the corpse, including his blankets, into strips and all is laid ui)on the body. After the body has been placed upon the blanket which is to wrap it for burial, if it be a man the wife places a quantity of food under the left arm, the arms hanging straight by the sides. If the wife does not perform this office then some member of his clan acts in her place. In the case of the death of a woman a member of her clan places the food. Again a small quantity of food is placed under the left arm by the man who principally officiates in the wrapping of the body. This is sometimes done by the son of the deceased. The blanket is first folded over one side of the bodv and then the other; then the end next to the head is caught together just above the

STEVEK80N.1 MORTUARY CUSTOMS. 145

head and tied some little distance from the end, tassel fashion, with a rope. The rope is fastened around the throat of the corpse and then continued around the body to the feet, and the blanket is tied below the feet to correspond with the head. Two men perform this service and alone carry the body to tlie grave and bury it without further ceremony, though the wailing and weeping is kept up in the house lor a considerable time.

If a husband dies the wife is bathed after the burial by a female member of her clan. This is done that the one remaining may be cleansed of much of her sorrow and be only a little sad. When a wife dies the husband is bathed by a female member of his clan. The bathing of the remaining husband or wife in ZuQi is done for a very differ- ent reason. \Mien a child dies both the paternal and maternal parents are bathed; but children are not bathed when a parent dies.

The fourth day after death, when the spirit starts on its journey to the lower world, after hovering around the pueblo in the meantime, a ceremonial is held by the society to which deceased belonged. If the person was not a member of one of the cult societies the family, select the ho'naaite they wish to have i)erform the ceremony. A ha^chamoni which was made on the third day by the theurgist is deposited on the north road for the spirit to carry to its future home. A vase of food is deposited at this time to feed the spirit on its journey, and if any other pieces of clothing liave been found they are cut and thrown over the north road. The clothing must never be deposited whole as the spirit of the clothing could not leave the body if it was in perfect condition.

The road to the lower world, which is to the north (the dead returning to the world whence they came), is so crowded that the spirits are often in each other's way, for not only the spirits of the Sia pass over this road but the spirits of all Indians. The spirits of the dead are traveling to their first home and the unborn spirits are passing to the villages in which, after a time, they are to be born.

Upon reaching the entrance to the lower world a spirit is met by two guards to the entrance, who say to them, *^ So you have come here," and the spirit rephes, "Yes." *' Where is your credentials inquires the chief guard, and the spirit shows his hii'chamoni, and the guard says, upon examining it, ''Yes, here is your ha'chamoni to your mother, Sfts'- slstinnako, that slie may know you came promptly over the straight road; she will be pleased." If the spirit be not provided with ha^chamoni it can not enter the lower world, but must roam about somewhere in the north. After examining the hii'chamoni, the guard says, "You may enter Shipapo and go to your mother in the lower world." The first one met by the spirit in the lower world is t^t'sCt, who says, "You have come from the other world t " and the spirit replies, " Yes." Then Ct's^t says, " You bring a hji'chamoni?" and the spirit replies, " Yes.'' " Let me see your hii'chamoni," and, after carefully looking over it, she hands it to SAs'slstinnako, who says, "Good! good!" and, pointing to 11 ETH 10

146 THE SI A.

the dead relatives of the newly arrived spirit, she adds, " There, my child, are your relatives; go join them and be happy." When one has been very wicked in this world he is not permitted to enter the lower world even though he has a hii'chamoui. The guards at the entrance can read all hearts and minds, and they put such spirits into a great fire which burns in the earth below somewhere not far distant from Shipapo. The spirit is burned to death in this fire and can never know anything, as it is entirely destroyed. When ti'amonis and ho'naaites have performed their duties in this world with unwilling hearts, it is known to the mother in the lower world, and when such men enter after death they are made to live apart, and alone, and without nourishment for a certain period of time, depending upon the amount of purification required. Some sit alone for two years; others for five, and some for ten before the mother considers them worthy to enter into peace.

The spirits of all animals go to the lower world; domestic animals serving the masters there as they did here. The masters would not always recognize them, but Sils'slstinnako knows the property of all. The spirits of the prey animals return, and know their friends, in the lower world. A h^'chamoni is made for the prey animal when he is killed, and a dance and ceremonial are held. The animal carries the ha'chamoui as his credential just as the spirit of the man does.

The cloud people never die; that is, no one, not even the oldest men's grandfathers ever knew of or saw a cloud person die.

MYTHS.

The writer gave but limited study while at Sia to myths not directly connected with their cosmogony and cult. The minds of several of the elder men are filled with the stories of the long-ago myth-makers, and they believe in the truth of these fables as they believe in their own existence, which is the cause, no doubt, for the absence of myth-making at the present time. It must be borne in mind, however, that these people have their winter tales and romances which they recognize as fiction. The animal myths here recorded were recited to the writer in a most dramatic manner by the vicar of the Snake Society, these portions of the stories where the coyote suffers disappointment^ and is cheated of his prey, giving special delight to the narrator.

The coyote seems to be a despised though necessary object inthemythic world of the Indian of the Southwest. He is certainly not reverenced, nor is he a being for whom they feel terror. While he is the object of ridicule he is also often of great service. Through his cunning he supplied the Sia of the upper world with fire by stealing it from Sus'- slstinnako in the lower world. When the world was new, people were depilous except upon their heads. The coyote said (animals could communicate with men then) : " It is not well for. you to be depilous," and from the pilous gi*owth about his mouth and belly he clothed the pubes and axilla of the Sia.

« ,

THB COYOTE ENCOUNTERS DISAPPOINTMENTS.

One day a sliurtsCinna (coyote) was passing about and saw a hare sitting before his house, and the coyote thought, "In a minute I will catch you," and he sprang and caught the hare, who cried, "Man coyote, do not eat me; wait just a minute, I have something to tell you, something that you will be glad to hear, something you must hear.'' "Well,'' said the coyote, "I will wait." "Let me sit at the entrance of my house and I can talk to you," and, standing near, he allowed the hare to take his seat there. The hare said, "What are you thinking of, coyote?" "Nothing," said the coyote. "Listen, then, to what I have to say; I am a hare, and I am much afraid of people; when they come carrying arrows 1 am very afraid of them, for when they see me they aim their arrows at me and I am very afraid, and oh ! how I tremble;" and suiting the action to his words the hare trembled violently, until he saw the coyote was a little off his guard; at this instant the hare started off at a run. It took a moment for the coyote to collect his thoughts, when he followed the hare, but he was always a little behind; after running some distance the hare entered the house of his companion just in time to escape the coyote. The coyote upon reaching the house found it was hard stone and he became very angry. " Alas ! " cried he, "I was very stupid. Why did I allow this hare to fool met I was so anxious to kill him ; I must have him. How can 1 catch him? Alas! this house is very strong, how can I open it?" and he began to work, but after a while he cried, "The stone is so strong I can not open it." Presently the hare called, "Man coyote, how are you going to kill me?" "I know how I am going to kill you," replied the coyote, "I will kill you with tire." "Where is the wood?" cried the hare, for there was no wood at the house of the kare. " I will bring grass," said the coyote, "and set fire to it and the fire will enter your house and go into your eyes, nose, and mouth, and kill you." "Oh," said the hare, " the grass is mine, it is my food, it will not kill me; why would my food kill me? It is my friend. No, grass will not kill me." "Then," cried the coyote, "I will bring all the trees of the woods and set tire to them," and the hare replied, "all the trees know me, they too are my food, they will not kill me, they are my friends." The coyote said, " 1 will bring the gum of the pinon and set fire to it," and the hare cried, "Oh, now I am much afraid, I do not eat that and it is not my friend," and the coyote rejoiced that he had discovered a plan for getting the hare. He hurried and brought all the gum he could carry and placed it at the door of the hare's house and set fire to it and in a short time the gum boiled like hot grease, and the hare cried, "Now I know I shall die, what shall I do?" jind the coyote's heart was glad. In a little while the hare called, "The fire is entering my house," and the coyote cried to him, "Blow it out". At the same time, drawing near to the tire, he blew with all his might to increase the flame. "Oh!"

148 THE 81 A.

cried the hare, ''your mouth is so close you are blowing the fire on to me, and I will soon die;" and the coyote put his mouth still closer to the fire and thought the hare must die; he blew with all his strength, drawing nearer in his eagerness to destroy the hare, until his face was very close to him, when the hare threw the boiling gum into the face of the coyote and escaped. The coyote's thoughts were now directed to the removal of the hot gum from his eyes and face. It was a long time before he could see anything, and his eyes were painful. When he realized the hare had again escaped liim he cried, " I am very, very stupid ; " and he started off disgusted with himself, and was very sad. After traveling a long distance and crossing a mountain he came to a man (lynx) sleeping. The coyote was pleased to see the man, and thought, "Here is a companion. I guess the fellow has either worked hard all night or traveled much, for he sleeps soundly." And after thinking quite a while, the coyote procured a slender round stick and thrust it into his stomach and twisted it very carefully to gather fat. The lynx still slept soundly. "I will tell my companion when he awakes," said the coyote, " that I have the fat of the deer on my stick," and he laid it to one side and began thinking. " Ah, I have a thought. In the old days my companion's mouth was not so large; it wa« small ; I will make it as it was. His ears were not so large; I will make them as they were. His tail was not so long; I will shorten it. His legs and arms and body were longer; I will lengthen them;" and he worked and pressed about the mouth until it was reduced in size, and so he labored over the ears until they were small, and pressed the tail until it grew shorter, and then pulled the legs and arms and body until they were the i>roper length. After his work was completed the coyote thought, "This is well." Still the lynx slept, and the coyote called, "Companion!" but no answer; the second time, "Companion !" and no answer; none coming to the third call, the coyote thought, " Why is it my companion sleeps so soundly? he must have traveled hard or worked hard all night," and again he called, "Companion!" and the lynx opened his eyes and looked about as one does when he has just awakened, but did not speak.

When he discovered that he was unlike his former self he said nothing, but thought, "That coyote man has done this work." The coyote then bringing the stick, with the fat upon it, said, "Companion, I wish much to talk with you; you have slept very soundly; I have brought you some fat from the deer; eat it; you will like it. I killed a deer the other day, and this is the reason I can bring you some fat;" and the lynx, thinking the coyote spoke the truth, at« the fat with much relish. When the fat had been consumed the coyote said, " Well, companion, what do you think of the deer fat?" but before the lynx made any reply the coyote added, "I lied to you; it is your own fat which I took from your stomach while you slept." The lynx at once became very sick and began vomiting. " I did not eat it," cried the

STEVENSON. J COYOTE MYTH. l49

lynx. '* Yes, you did," said the coyote. "See, you can not keep it;" and the lynx continued vomiting until all the fat had been thrown from his stomach. He was very angry with the coyote, and thought, '^Some time I will play the same trick upon you, man coyote."

The two now separated, taking opposite roads; but in a short time the lynx returned and followed the coyote, aiming to keep close to him; but the coyote soon distanced the lynx, leaving him far behind; the coyote, however, did not know that the lynx was following him. After he had traveled a long distance he became tired and lay down to rest and sleep. After a time the lynx arrived, and finding the coyote sleeping, said: "Ah! ah! now I will play my trick;" and he called to thecOyote, " Companion !" and no answer ; again he called, " Companion !" and no answer; and the third and fourth calls brought no reply. The coyote was sleeping soundly. " He is surely asleep," said the lynx, and with a stick similar to the one employed by the coyote, he drew the fat from the coyote's stomach and placed it to one side; he then proceeded to change the appearance of the coyote; he pulled upon the mouth until he made it project, and it >vas much larger than before; then he pulled upon the ears until they became long, and he lengthened the tail to twice its size, and he also stretched the body and the arms. When he had completed his work he cried four times to the coyote, "Companion!" The fourth time the coyote awoke, and the lynx said, "I have brought you some deer fat;" and the coyote was stupid enough to believe the story, and ate the fat, for he was very hungry. Then, said the lynx, "Man, what do you think! Do you think I have lied to you! Well, I have lied to you; for the fat is from your own stomach;" and the coyote was very angry and vomited all that he had eaten. And he cried, "Man lynx, we are even;" and in a little while they separated, taking opposite roads.

The coyote traveled a great distance, and in the middle of the day it was very hot, and he sat down and rested, and he thought as he looked up to ti'nia, "How I wish the cloud people would freshen my path and make it cool ;" and in a little while the cloud people gathered above the road the coyote was to travel over, and he rejoiced that his path was to be shady and cool; but after he had traveled a short distance, he again sat down, and, looking upward, said, "I wish much the cloud people would send rain, that my road would be fresher and cooler." In a little while a shower came, and the coyote was contented and went on his way rejoicing; but in a short time he again sat down and wished that the rosed could be very moist, that it would be fresh to his feet, and almost immediately the road was wet as though a river had passed over it, and the coyote was very contented.

But after going a short distance he again took his seat and said to himself, "I guess I will talk again to the cloud people;" and he said to them, "I wish for water over my road; water to my elbows, that I may travel on my hands and feet in the cool waters ; then I shall be refreshed

and happy f aud in a little while his road was covered with the water and the coyote moved on; but after a time he wished for something more, and he sat down and said to the cloud people, "I wish much for water to my shoulders; 1 \vill then be very happy and contented;" and in a moment the waters arose as he had wished; but he did not go far before he again sat down and talked to the cloud people, saying, '^If you will only give me water so high that my eyes, nose, mouth, and ears are alone above it I will be happy aud contented; then my road will indeed be cool;" and his prayer was answered.

But even this did not satisfy him, and after traveling a short distance he sat down and implored the cloud people to give him a river that he might float over the road, and immediately a river appeared and the coyote floated with the stream. He was high in the mountains and wished to go below to the hare land. After floating a long distance he came to the hare land and saw many hares a little distance off, both large and small, and they were on both sides of the river. The coyote lay down as though he were dead (he was covered in mud), and listened, and j)resently he saw a woman ka'wate (mephitis) approaching, carrying her vase and gourd; she was coming for water. Before the coyote saw the ka'wate he heard the gounl striking against the vase. As she drew near the coyote peeped at her aud she looked at him and said: "Here is a dead coyote. Where did he come from? I guess from the mountains above. I guess he fell into the water and died." When she came closer he looked at her and said ; "Come here, woman." "What do you want!" said the ka'wate. "I want you to be my companion," said the coyote. "I know all the hares and other small ani- mals well, and I guess in a little while they will all come here, and when they think I am dead they will be very happy." And the two talked much together and the coyote said: "Let us be companions, what do you think about it?" "I have no thoughts at all," said the ka'wate. "I," said the coyote, "think we had better work together." And the ka' wate replied : " It is well." Then said the coyote : " Go and bring me four clubs; I want them for the hares." When the ka'wate returned with the clubs the coyote said: " Put them on the ground and cover them with earth." When this was done he lay upon them. Then said the coyote: "Go and bring me the seeds from the patiiin." (A very tall grass: the seeds when ripe are black.) He put the seeds on his mouth, nostrils, eyes, and ears and scattered them over his body. This he did that the hares might think him dead and being eaten by worms. Then he said to the ka'wate: "Look around everywhere for the hares; when you see them, say a coyote is dead; they will soon come to look at me and they will dance around me for joy because I am dead. You return with them, and wlien they dance tell them to look to the cloud people while they dance, and then throw your poison (mephitic fluid) up and let it fall upon their faces like rain, and when it goes in their eyes they can not see, for the poison of the ka'wate burns

STEVENSON.) COYOTE MYTH. 151

like red pepper, and when they become blind we can kill tbein; yon will take two of the clubs and I will take two, one in either hand." When the ka'wate rea<*hed the hares she spoke to the hare chief. "Hare, listen; I saw a dead coyote over there." " Where f cried the chief. "There by the river.'' "You are not lying!" said the chief. "No; I speak the truth, there is a dead coyote." "What killed the coyote!" "I don't know what killed him, but I think he must have fallen into the water far above and was brought here by the river." And the chief communicated the news to all of his companions and they concluded to send one hare alone to' see if the ka'wate spoke the truth. "Go quickly," said they to the hare, "and see if the woman speaks the truth." The hare hastened off, and when he reached the coyote he looked carefully all about and concluded the coyote had been dead some time, for he saw that the body was covered with worms, and returning he told his people what he had seen, but some refused to believe that the coyote was dead. It was decided to send another mes- senger, and a second hare was dispatched to see if the first one's story was correct. He returned \dt\i the same news and so a third and fourth were sent, and each came bearing the story that a coyote was dead and being eaten by worms. Then the hares decided to go in a body and see the dead coyote. The men, women, and children hastened to look upon the dead body of the coyote, and rejoicing over his death they struck him with their hands and kicked him. There were crowds of hares and they decided to have a great dance. Now and then a hare would leave the group of dancers and stamp upon the coyote, who lay all the time as though he were dead, and during the dance they clapped their hands over their mouths and gave a whoop like the war whoop.

After a time the ka'wate stepped apart from the group and said, "All of you hares look up, do not hold your heads down, look up to the cloud people while you sing and dance; it is much better to hold your heads up." All threw their heads back and looked to ti'ni'a. Then theka'wate threw high her mephitic fluid, which fell like rain upon the faces and into the eyes of all the hares, and their eyes were on fire; all they could do was to rub them; they could not see anything. And the coyote quickly rose, and handed the ka'wate two of the clubs, keeping two himself, and they killed all of the hares; there was a great number, and they were piled up like stones. Then said the coyote, " Where shall I find fire to cook the hares! Ah," said he, pointing across to a very high rock, "that rock gives good shade and it is cool; I will find the fire and cook my meat near the shade of the rock;" and he and the ka'wate carried all of the hares to this i)oint. and the coyote made a large fire and threw them into it. When this was done he was very warm from his work about the fire and he was also tired, and he lay down close to the rock in the shade. He was now perfectly happy, and contented to be quiet, but only for a short time. He must be at work

154 THE 81 A.

cave," answered the (leer, "and built a fire of cedar in front of the cave, and every time a «park flew from the fire it struck my children, making a beautiful spot*" "Oh," said the coyote, "1 will do the same and make my children beautiful," and he hurried to his house and put his children into a cave and built a tire of cedar, and then stood off to watch the fire. The cliildren cried much, because the fire was very hot. The coyote tried to stop their cries by telling them they would soon be beautiful like the children of the deer. After a time their weeping ceased and the coyote thought his words had comforted them, but, in fact, the children were burned to death. When the cedar was consumed the coyote hastened to the cave, expecting to find his children very beautiful, but instead he found them dead; he was enraged with tlie deer and ran fast to hunt her, but he could find her nowhere, and he returned to his house much distressed and much disgusted with himself for having been so easily fooled by the deer.

THE COYOTE AND THE COUaAR.

When the world was new the coyote was very industrious. He was always at work passing around the world everywhere. He was never lazy, but his thoughts were not good. He visited one camp of people and told them he belonged to the Corn people; at another camp he said he belonged to the Knife people. Both times he lied. After a while the coyote told the cougar, who was the Either of all game, that he would like to be a ho'naaite. The cougar replied, " When your thoughts are good, then you may become one." "I guess the coyote is not lying, he has good thoughts now," and the cougar said to him, "Come in four days to me and we will make ha'chamoni." The coyote returned on the fourth dfiy and worked eight days with the cougar preparing ha'chamoni. He was supposed to abstain during this time from food, drink, and smoking, and to practice continency. The cougar also fasted and practiced continency for the same period of time. Each night when it was dark the cougar said, " You, man coyote, now it is night, take this food which I give you and offer it to Ko'plshtaia." Tlie first night the coyote returned with a (contented heart, and ui)on entering the cougar's house he sat down. The second night after the coyote left the house with tlie food for Ko'pishtaia, he felt a little hungry, and he said to himself, " Last night I wa« not hungry, now I am hun- gry, a las ! I am afraid or T would eat this food. Why have I wished to be a ho'naaite ? I have food here and I wish to eat it, for I am hungry and yet I am afraid." And so he argued with himself until he overcame all scruples and ate the food. " Now," said he, "I am contented; 1 am no longer hungry;" and he returned to the cougar, pretending he had offered the food to Ko'plshtaia, and so the remaining eight nights the coyote ate the food w^hich was given him by the cougar to offer to Ko'plshtaia, but he said nothing of this to anyone. The cougar grew

to be straight and had no belly, but tlie coyote did not change in appearance, and the sixth night the cougar began to suspect that the coyote was not making his ofterings to Ko'plshtaia. The coyote told the cougar each night that he was contented and was not hungry. '*! think you are a little sad,'' the cougar replied. ^'No, I am not sad; my stomach is strong," said the coyote, '*I can fast eight days; I wonder that I am not a little sad. Why am I not hungry! I feel strong all the time that I am i)assing about/'

On the seventh day the cougar and the coyote worked very hard all day making hii'chamoni, jind when the work was completed the cougar taught the coyote the song which he would sing as ho'naaite of the Coyote Society. They sang all the eighth day and night and at the conclusion of the song the coyote was ordained a ho'naaite. Then said the cougar to the coyote, "Go now and kill a deer, and when you kill the deer bring the meat here and we will eat," and the coyote said, "It is well;" and he went to hunt the deer. In the early morning the coyote saw a deer, but the deer ran fast, and, though he followed him all day, he could not get close enough to catch him ; he did not carry arrows, but was to catch him with his hands, and at night the coyote returned worn out. While the coyote was absent the cougar thought, "I guess the coyote will be gone all day," and when evening came and the coyote was still absent he thought, "The coyote has not a good head or thoughts for a ho'naaite." When the coyote returned at night the cougar said, "Why have you been gone all day and come back without a deer?" "I saw a deer," said the coyote, "early this morning, and I ran all day following him; I went very far and am tired." "Well," said the cougar, " why is it your head and heart cared to be a ho'naaite! I gave you food for Ko'jilshtaia and you, coyote, you ate the food that should have been given to Ko'plshtaia; this is why you did not catch the deer to-day. Had you given the food to Ko'plshtaia, instead of eating it, you would have caught the deer." The coyote thought much, but did not say a word. He slept that night in the cougar's house, and at dawn the cougar said to one of his own people, "you go and catch a deer." "Well, be it so," said the companion, and he started for the deer before the sun was up. In a short time he saw one; it was very near him, and with one jump he sprang upon the game and caught it before the sun was yet up, and hurrying back to the house of his chief he said, "Here is the meat of the deer."

The chief was much pleased and contented, but the coyote was very sad. All the companions of the cougar were happy and rejoiced. "Good, my son!" said the cougar, "I am much contented; we will pay the Ko'plshtaia with plumes; now we will eat the flesh of the deer." The chief ate first and the others after him ; he would not give any of the meat to the coyote, because the coyote's thoughts were not good. The chief enjoyed his food greatly, this being the ninth morning from the beginning of his fast. The cougar said to the coyote, "Your

thoughts aud heart are not good; you are no longer a ho'naaite; go! You will henceforth travel quickly over and about the world; you will work much, passing about, but you will never understand how to kill the deer, antelope, or any game; I do not travel fast, but my thoughts are good, and when I call the deer they come quickly." Since that time the coyote is always hunting the deer, rabbit, and other game, but is not successfiil.

THE COYOTE AND RATTLESNAKE.

The coyote's house was near the house of the rattlesnake. The coyote said to the snake, '*Let us walk together," and while walking he said to the snake, "To-morrow come to my house." In the morning the snake went to the house of the coyote and moved along slowly on the floor, shaking his rattle. The coyote sat to one side, much afraid; he became frightened after watching the movements of the snake and hearing the noise of the rattle. The coyote had a pot of rabbit meat cooking on the fire, which he placed in front of the snake, inviting him to eat, saying, "Companion, eat." "Ko, companion, I will not eat your meat; I do not understand your food," said the snake. "What food do you eat f" asked the coyote. " I eat the yellow flowers of the corn," was the reply, and the coyote immediately began to look around for some, and when he found the pollen, the snake said, "Put some on the top of my head that I may eat it," and the coyote, standing as far off as possible, dropped a little on the snake's head. The snake said, "Gome nearer and put enough on my head that I may find it." He was very much afraid, but after a while he came close to the snake and put the pollen on his head, and after eating the pollen the snake thanked the coyote saying, "I will go now and pass about," but before leaving he invited the coyote to his house: "Companion, to-morrow you come to my house." "Very well," said the coyote, "to-morrow I will go to your house." The coyote thought much what the snake would do on the morrow. He made a small rattle (by placing tiny pebbles in a gourd) and attached it to the end of his tail, and, testing it, he was well satisfied and said : "This is well;" he then proceeded to the house of the snake. When he was near the house he shook his tail and said to himself, "This is good ; I guess when I go into the house the snake wUl be very much afraid of me." He did not walk into the house, but moved like a snake. The coyote could not shake the rattle as the snake did his; he had to hold his tail in his hand. When he shook his rattle the snake api>eared afraid and said, "Companion, I am much afraid of you." The snake had a stew of rats on the fire, which he placed before the coyote and invited him to eat, saying, "Companion, eat some of my food," aud the coyote replied, "I do not understand your food; I can not eat it, because I do not understand it." The snake insisted upon his eating, but the coyote continued to refuse, saying, "If you will put some of

8TBVEX8oif.) THE SKATONA. 157

the flower of the corn on my head I will eat; I understand that food.'' The snake quickly procured some corn pollen, but he pretended to be afraid to go too near the coyote, and stood off a distance. The coyote told him to come nearer and put it well on the top of his head; but the snake replied, "I am afraid of you." The coyote said, "Come nearer to me; I am not bad," and the snake came closer and put the pollen on the coyote's head and the coyote tried to eat the i)ollen; but he had not the tongue of the snake, so could not take it from his head. He made many attempts to reach the top of his head, putting his tongue first on one side of his nose and then on the other, but he could only reach either side of his nose. His repeated failures made the snake laugh heartily. The snake put his hand over his mouth, so that the coyote should not see him laugh; he really hid his head in his body. The coyote was not aware that the snake discovered that he could not obtain the food. As he left the snake's house he held his tail in his hand and shook the rattle; and the snake cried, "Oh companion! I am so afraid of you," but in reality the snake shook with laughter. The coyote, returning to his house, said to himself, "I was such a fool; the snake had much food to eat and I would not take it. Now I am very hungry," and he went out in search of food.

THE skItona.

The myth of the ska'tona (a monster plumed serpent) who, in the old time, ate the people, is familliar to every man, woman, and child of Sia. This serpent, who lived in the mountains, did not move to catch the people, but drew them to him with his breath; he never called but one person at a time, compelling each one to approach sidewlse so that he could not be seen. The hand was usually grabbed first, then the serpent would take the hand into his mouth and gradually devour his victim.

. I

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION— BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

ETHNOLOGY

OF THE

UN6AVA DISTRICT, HUDSON BAY TERRITORY.

By LUCIEN M. TURNER.

/

''116

.1

t c :'■

• ?^

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II

p-»-

.^

a^

CONTENTS.

Paga

Introdactiuu 167

Fort Chimo and the siirroiiuding region 167

Climate 172

Auroras 173

Vegetation 173

Animal life 174

MummaiR 174

Birds 175

The native inhabitants of the country — general Hketrh 175

The Eskimo 175

The Indians 181

Special account of the pco]»lp around Port. Chimo 184

The Koksoagmyut 184

Physical charnct^^ristics 184

Diseases 187

Marriage 188

Children 190

Burial customs 191

Religion 193

Outdoor life 202

Tattooing 207

Clothing 208

Dwellings 223

Household articles 228

Food an<l its preparation 232

Tobacco and snuff 234

Means of transportation ^ 235

By water 235

On land 240

Weapons and other hunting implements 246

Hunting 249

Miscellaneous implements 252

Amusements 254

Art 259

Story-telling and folklore 260

Origin of the Innuit 261

The coming of the white people 261

Origin of living things on the earth and in the water 261

Origin of the guillemots 262

Origin of the raven 262

Origin of the quadrangular spots on the loon's back 262

Origin of the gulls 263

Origin of the hawks 263

Origin of the swallow 263

11 ETH 11 161

•

164 ILLUSTRATIONS.

rage.

Fig. 55. Wooden dish 231

56. Sealskin bucket 232

57. Sealskin cup 232

58. Tobacco pouch 234

59. Eskimo Umiak 235

60. DogTvhip 244

61. Bow, East Main Eskimo (back) 246

62. Bow, East Main Eskimo (side) 246

63. Arrow, East Main Eskimo 247

64. Arrow, East Main Eskimo 247

65. Arrow, East Main Eskimo 247

66. Bow case, East Main Eskimo 248

67. Hand spear for killing neals, from kaiak, Koksoak 249

68. Toggle head for hand spear 250

69. Sealskin float 250

70. Ivory snow knife, Koksoagmyiit 253

71. Back-scratcher, Koksoagmyut 253

72. Ivory needle case, Koksoagmyut 254

73. Ivory needle case, Koksoagmyut 254

74. Sealskin needle cushion, with thimble, Koksoagmyut 254

75. "Cup and ball,'' Koksoagmyut 256

76. Football and driver, Koksoagmyut 256

77. Dominoes, Hudson strait Eskimo 257

78. Eskimo doll, man 258

79. Eskimo doll, woman 258

80. Eskimo doll, woman 259

81. Eskimo doll, woman 259

82. Eskimo violin 259

83. Birds carved in ivory 260

84. Human figure carved iu ivory 260

85. Indian medicine lodge 274

86. Indian amulet of bearskin 275

87. Indian buckskin coat, man's (front) 281

88. Indian buckskin coat, man's (back) 282

89. Detail of patt<^m painted on Indian garment 282

90. Detail of pattern painted on deerskin robe 283

91. Indian buckskin leggings 283

92. Indian moccasins 284

93. Indian mittens 285

94. Bea<led headband, Nenonot 286

95. Man's winter coat (front) 287

96. Man's winter coat (back) 288

97. Detail of ornamentation 288

98. Man's winter coat, with hood 289

99. Man's winter coat, with hood 290

100. Nenenot woman in full winter dress 291

101 . Sealskin headband, Nenenot 292

102. Skin scraper (front), Nenenot 292

103. Skin scraper (side), Nenenot 292

104. Skin-cleauiug tool, Nenenot 293

1(X». Skin-cleaniDg tool (iron-bladed), Nenenot 2i)4

KKJ. Paint stick, Nenenot 2m

107 296

108. Paint stick, Nenenot 296

109. Paint stick, Nenenot 297

ILLUSTRATIONS. 165

Pajro.

FiG.llO. Paint Stick, Nenenot 297

111. Paint cup, Nenenot 297

112. Paint cup, Nenenot 297

113. Paint cup, Nenenot 298

114. Nenenot Indian tent 298

115. Wooden bucket, Nenenot 301

116. Birchbark basket, Nenenot 301

117. Birchbark basket, Nenenot 301

118. Stone pestle, Nenenot 802

119. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 302

120. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 302

121. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 303

122. Wooden spoon or ladle, Nenenot 303

123. Stone tobacco pipe 304

124^ Pipe cleaner, Nenenot 304

125. Spoon for applying grease to canoe 306

126. Toboggan, Nenenot, side view 307

127. Toboggan, Nenenot, from above 307

128. Nenenot snowshoe, single bar 308

129. Nenenot snowshoe, single bar 309

130. Snowshoe needle, Nenenot 310

131. Wooden snowshoe, Little Whale river 311

132. Bow, Nenenot 312

133. Arrow, Nenenot .• 313

134. Arrow, Nenenot 313

135. Arrow, Nenenot 313

136. Arrow, Nenenot 313

137. Deer lance, Nenenot 314

138. White whale spear. Little W^hale river 314

139. Point of white whale spear enlarged 314

• 140. Reindeer snare, Nenenot 315

141. Crooked knife, Nenenot 317

142. A.wl, Nenenot 318

143. Snow shovel, Nenenot 318

144. Ice scoop, Nenenot 318

145 319

146. Comb, with birchbark case and cleaner 320

147. Boards for woman's hair 320

148. Swimming board 321

149. Fishhook and line 321

150. Cup and ball, Nenenot 824

151. Drum, Nenenot 324

152. Drum, Little Whale river 325

153. Rattle, Nenenot 326

154. Target, reindeer, buck 326

155. Target, reindeer, doe 326

ETHNOLOGY OF THE UNGAVA DISTRICT, HUD

SON BAY TERRITORY.

By Lucien M. Tuenee.

(Edited by John Murdoch.)

INTRODUCTION.

ITngava bay is on the northern coast of old Labrador — ^the last great bight of the strait between the ocean and the mouth of Hudson bay. Its chief afSuent is Koksoak or South river, which is several hundred miles long and takes its rise in a picturesque festoonery of lakes looped through the highlands half way down to Quebec.

FOET OHIMO Am) THE SUEEOUNDINO EEGION.

Fort Ghimo is in longitude 68^ 16' west of Greenwich and latitude 680 8' north. The post is on the right bank of the Koksoak river, about 27 miles from its mouth. The elevation of the level tract on which the houses are situated is but a few feet above high- water mark. The location was selected on account of its comparative dryness, and also because the river affords a safer anchorage in that vicinity than lower down.

The early Moravian missionaries, long before established on the Atlantic coast, desired to extend their labors for the conversion of the Eskimo to their teachings. About the year 1825 a vessel ascended the Koksoak river for the purpose of selecting a new missionary station* Nearly opposite Fort (3himo is a beacon, yet standing, erected by the people of that vessel. Their reception among the natives was such that they gave a glowing account of it on their return. The Hudson Bay Company immediately took steps to erect a trading post upon the river, and a small party was sent in the year 1831 from Moose Factory to establish a trading post where the trade would appear to promise future development. The men remained there, obtaining a precarious subsistence, as the vessel delivering them supplies visited that place only once in two years. Their houses were simple, consisting of a single structure for the of&cial in charge, another for the servants, and two more for the storage of goods. A palisade was erected around the

houses to prevent the intrusion of the natives, Indians and Eskimo^ who were so lately at war with each other that the rancorous fecling^ had not subsided and might break out afresh at any moment without warning. The remnants of the palisade were yet visible in 1882. The establishment of this trading post had a pacifying influence upon the natives, who soon found they could do better by procuring the many valuable fur-bearing animals than by engaging in a bloody strife, which the traders always deprecate and endeavor to prevent or suppress. After many trials to establish an overland communication with the stations on Hamilton inlet, it was found to be impracticable, and in 1843 the station was abandoned.

John M'Leau, in a work entitled "Twenty-five Years in the Hudson'^ Bay Territory,"* gives an account of that portion of the country that came under his knowledge from the year 1838 to 1843.

In the year 1866 the steamer Labrador was built and sent with a party to reestablish the post at Fort Ghimo. Since 1866 the x>ost has been a paying station, and in later years a good profit has been made.

Fort Chimo is the chief trading station of the Ungava district. The Ungava district proper is the area embraced by the watershed whose outflow drains into Ungava bay. The eastern boundary is formed by the foothills on the west side of the coast range, which is the western limit of Labrador. This range has a trend northwest and southeast tolatitude 60^, where it makes a somewhat abrupt angle and pursues a nearly north course, terminating with Gape Ghidley and the Buttons, the latter a low group of islets some 7 miles north of the cape. The southern boundary is the ** Height of Land," near latitude 65°. This region is estimated to be from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea level. The greater portion of it is comparatively level, and on its surface are innumerable lakes of various sizes, some of which are quite large. The western boundary is not so well known in the southern part of the region, as it has been seldom traversed. It seems to be a high elevation extending toward the north-northwest, as numerous streams run firom the southwest and west toward the central or Koksoak valley. Eskimo who have traversed the region many times report that the elevated land abruptly ends near 58^ 30', and that there is formed a wide swampy tract, estimated to be about 80 miles wide, which opens to the northeast and southwest^ The northwestern portion of the district is a great area abounding in abrupt hills and precipitous mountains of various heights. These heights, estimated to range no higher than 2,600 feet, terminate abruptly on the western end of the strait, and the numerous islands in that portion of the water are, doubtless, peaksof this same range continuing to the northwest.

It will be thus seen that the district of Ungava is a huge amphitheater oi>ening to the north. The interior of the district is excess- ively varied by ridges and spurs of greater or less elevation. The

1 Two vols, in one. London, 1849.

farther south one travels, the higher and more irregularly disposed are the hills and mountains. These spurs are usually parallel to the main ranges, although isolated spurs occur which extend at right angles to the main range. The tops of the higher elevations are covered with snow for the entire year. The summits of the lower ones are shrouded with snow as early as the Ist of September, and by the 1st of October the snow line descends nearly to their bases. The lower lands are fiiU of swampy tracts, lakes, and ponds.

The more elevated regions are totally destitute of vegetation, except the tripe des roches, which gives to the hills a somber color, anything but inspiring. Fully three-fourths of the more elevated region is, with the exception of black lichens, barren rock. Everywhere is the evidence of long continued glacial action. The southern exposures of all the hills show the same character of wearing, and, in many instances, a fine polish on the rocks forming their bases. This smoothness extends nearly to the summits of the higher peaks. These again are somewhat rougher and often broken into jagged, angular fragments, frequently of immense size. The more moderate elevations are usually rounded summits on whose higher portions may be found huge bowlders of rock having a different character from that upon which they rest, proving that they were carried there by masses of ice in the glacial ages. The northern extremity of all the ridges and spurs indicate that the glacial sheet moved to the north-northwest, for these portions of the rocks are so jagged and sharp edged as to appear to have been broken but yesterday.

The rivers of this district are numerous and several are of great size, although but two of them are navigable for more than 100 miles, and this only for boats of light draft.

The river usually known as George's river (Kan'gClkflaa^ksoak) is the largest on the eastern side. This stream takes its rise about latitude 550 and pursues a moderately tortuous course nearly northward and falls into the eastern side of Ungava Bay. It has a wide bay-like mouth narrowing rapidly at the mouth proper. Swift rapids are formed here on account of an island near the center. Beyond this the river expands and has an average width of half a mile for a distance of about 18 miles where the river bends eastward and forms rapids for over 2 miles. It is navigable for the steamer Labrador only about 12 miles. Beyond the rapids it runs tolerably smooth and deep for nearly 40 miles and thence to the source is a series of 1 apids and falls, rendering portages frequent, and making it utterly impracticable for even a heavy skiff to ascend beyond 70 miles from the mouth. Indians assert that high falls occur about 150 miles from the mouth of the George's river. The water is said to fall from a terrific height, almost perpendicularly, and it causes the ground to tremble so that the thundering noise may be lieard for more than a day's journey from it.

The tide at the mouth of George's river rises 53 feet, and at t!ie

Anchorage, opposite the newly established station of Fort George, some 12 miles from its mouth, 42 feet.

Whale river is the next important river toward the east. Oflf the mouth of this river is a huge island, locally known as Big island. This high island extends parallel to the course of the river, and a reef, connecting its upper end with the mainland, becomes dry at low water. The course of Whale river is not well known. About 40 miles up this stream it suddenly contracts and becomes a mere creek, forming the outlet of a large lake, whose x>osition is not satisfactorily determined. It is to the banks of this lake that certain families of the Indians repair for summer fishing.

The next large river is the Koksoak. This stream is the largest in the district. It takes its rise from lakes situated on the plateau — the ^< Height of Land," — and pursues a course having a general direction north-northeast. On emerging from the lake it is rather small, but forks and unites again about 40 miles below. The current is is sluggish at the upper end, and the eastern branch is so narrow that the Indians have to part the overhanging alders and willows to afford their canoes a passage. This branch is said to be the shorter way to the lake and is not so difficult to ascend, the eastern branch being shallow and containing a number of rapids.

Below the junction of the branches the river rapidly becomes larger and contains several very high falls, below which the river flows northwest for a couple of hundred yards and then curves to the north-north- east for a distance of 5 miles. This portion is only about 700 feet wide. It then turns abruptly westward and rushes swiftly through a narrow gorge only 200 feet wide for a distance of about 7 miles. This course is noted for several rapids, through which a boat can not make its way without great difficulty. At the end of this 7-mile run the river again bends abruptly to the east, and continues that course with little northing until the last bend, some 65 miles below, is reacjied. At the lower end of the 7- mile run the ledges and reefs are too numerous to count. From this place to the mouth of the Larch river the Koksoak is obstructed by islands, bars, and shoals. Below these, however, it becomes quite broad, until nearly opposite the high point or promontory below the mouth of the Larch (PI. xxxvi). From this locality it is monotonous till the last bend is reached, some 4 miles above Fort Chimo, where it suddenly turns to the north and pursues that direction to the sea with little variation. At the last bend, however, a large island, locally known as Big island, not only obstructs but ends navigation for boats drawing over 6 feet. Small boats, such as skiffs and native boats, ascend to the lower end of 7-mile run. The principal obstruction to travel in any kind of vessel in the Koksoak from Big island to the mouth of the Larch river is the presence of two falls or rapids about 40 miles from Fort Ghimo.

The extreme rise and fall of the tide at the mouth of the river is 62

feet 3 inches. The usual rise and fall is from 8 to 12 feet less, depending on the stage of the river. At Fort Chimo the tide rises as much as 31 feet. The backwater is held in check as far as the upper rapids in a common stage of water^ and during a high rise in the month of June the water is *' backed" some 3 miles beyond the upper rapids.

The branches of the Koksoak river are few and unimportant. The larger tributary is the Larch river. It is a rapid and almost unnavigable stream of variable depth, mostly shallow, and 100 to nearly 400 yards wide.

At about 40 miles from its mouth the Larch forks, the lower or southwest fork draining the eastern sides of the same mountains whose western slopes are drained by the Little Whale river. This southwest fork of the Larch river is quite small and scarely capable of being ascended, although it may, with great caution, be descended. This is the course followed by the Little Whale river Indians when they traverse the country to join the Naskopies of the Koksoak valley. The northwest branch of the Larch is still smaller and is reported to issue from the swampy tract of land in about latitude 58^ 30'.

The next large river is the Leaf. Its mouth is about 34 miles northwest of Fort Chimo, and it flows into a peculiarly shaped bay named Tass'iyak, or ^' like a lake.'^ The length of the river proper is estimated to be but 40 miles, flowing from a very long and narrow lake, having its longer axis extending southwestward and draining the greater part of the swampy tract lying in latitude 58^ 30'. The southwestern x>ortion of this tract is merely an area covered with innumerable small lakes so intimately connected by short water courses that it is difficult to determine whether water or land constitutes the greater part of the area. The rivers to the west are of less importance and drain the rugged area forming the northwestern portion of the district, or that part lying under the western third of Hudson strait.

The priu(5ipal portion of Hudson strait that came under my observation is Uugava bay. This bay is a pocket-shaped body of water lying south of the strait and toward its eastern end. Soundings in various portions of this bay indicate a depth of 28 to 70 fathoms for the central area. The bottom appears to be uniformly the washings from the freshwater streams. The extreme tides of Hudson strait tend to produce the most violent currents in this bay. Opposite the entrance of Leaf river bay is a whirlpool of considerable size, which causes much trouble to navigation. It is safe enough at high water but very dangerous at half-tide.

The large island known as Akpatok lies in such a position as to break much of the current along the south side of the middle of the strait, but to give additional force to the currents at either end. This island is about 100 miles long and has an average width of 18 miles. It is the largest island in the strait proper.

The coast line of the northwest portion of the mainland is imperfectly

known, as is the western coast forming the eastern shore of Hudson bay. Navigation in any portion of Hudson strait is attended with much danger, not alone from the tremendous energy of the tides but also from the quantity of ice to be found at all times. During the months of August and September the strait is comparatively free from large fields of ice, but after that date the harbors, coves, and other anchorages are apt to be frozen up in a single night.

CLIMATE.

The temperature is controlled by the direction of the wind. The warmest winds are southeast, south, and southwest during the summer. The northeast winds bring (if backing) fog, rain, or snow; the north wind is usually cold and disposed to disperse the clouds. The northwest wind is always very cold in winter and chilly in summer. Westerly winds are moderate in winter and summer. The southerly winds are warm at all seasons if blowing hard, but very cold if blowing lightly in winter. I think the coldest light winds of the winter are from a point little west of south. They are doubtless due to the cold from the elevated region — ^the Height of Land.

The greatest amount of cloudiness occurs in the spring and fall; rather less in July and August, and least during December, January, and February. The average cloudiness for the entire year is not less than eighty-two hundredths of the visible sky.

Sleet falls mostly from the middle of September to the beginning of December. Snow then succeeds it and continues to be the only form of precipitation until the middle of April, when sleet and snow fall until the first rain sets in. The season of rain is very erratic. It may rain by the first of May, but rarely does. Snow falls every month in the year; the 2d of July and the 6th of August were the dates farthest apart for this form of precipitation. The character of the rain is usually moderate to hard for the summer showers; although several notable exceptions of abundant dashes occur during late June and all of July. The August and September rains are usually light to moderate, but often persistent for several days. The snowfalls are light to heavy in character, rarely, however, lasting more than twenty-four hours. The sleet is usually precipitated in severe squalls. The lower grounds are permanently covered with snow by the 1st of December, this covering remaining until the 10th of June. At the latter date only the heavier drifts and the snow <)f the ravines remain. It entirely disappears by the last of July at all elevations no higher than that of Fort Chimo.

The higher hills retain snow until the last of August, but none is to be seen in the vicinity of Fort Chimo after that date. By the middle of September snow again covers the tops of the distant high hills.

Fogs rarely occur so far inland as Fort Chimo. Those occurring are in July and August. At times they are very dense; and, as they form during the earliest hours of the day, they are usually dissipated by 4

to 7 a. 111. While the ice is setting iu the river, and driven back and forth by the tides, huge volumes of steam arise from the inky water and are spread over the land by the light winds prevailing at that season. This moisture deposited on the bushes and trees forms a most beautiful sight.

AUBOBAS.

Auroras may be seen on most of the clear nights of the yeiir. The month of June is, on account of its light nights, the only month in which an aurora is not observable.

VEGETATION.

The northern limit of trees on the Labrador coast is in latitude 67o. Here the conifers are stunted and straggling. Beyond the coast range they attain a slightly higher altitude and thence continue to a point about thirty miles north of the mouth of George's river. On the western side of the mouth of this river the trees are pushed back 15 to 20 miles from the sea. At the mouth of Whale river, the trees attain a height of 30 to 50 feet on the eastern (right) bank and within 2 miles of the shore. On the left bank the trees do not approach to within 10 to 15 miles of the coast. At the mouth of False river they form a triangular extension and attain considerable size, due in great measure to the peculiar formation of a huge amphitheater whose north wall serves as an admirable protection against the cold winds from the bay. On the western side of False river the tree line extends in a southwesterly direction across the Koksoak and to the banks of the Leaf river nearly at its sourite from the large lake. From the south side of this lake the trees are very much scattered and attain inconsiderable size, scarcely fitted for other uses than fuel.

A line from this lake southwest to the eastern shore of Hudson bay forms the northern limit of trees for the northwest portion of tlie region. The people (Eskimo only) who dwell north of this line are dependent upon the stunted willows and alders, growing in the deeper ra\ines and valleys having a southern exposure. Large pieces of wood are much simght for by the Eskimo of the northwest i)ortion, for use in constructing their kaiaks, umiaks and paddles, as well as spear shafts and smaller requirements for which the distorted stems of willow and alder will not suffice.

South of the line given as the northern limit of trees the growth slowly attains greater size and extension of area. The timber north of the Height of Land is comparatively small, the spruce and larch rarely attaining a size greater than 12 to 15 inches at the ground and rapidly tapering up for 2 feet or so above the surface. Above the height of 2 fL*et the stems slowly taper and, in a few instances, produce symmetrical stems for more than 15 feet. The trees growing within 40 mUes of Fort Oliimo seldom exceed 10 inches in diameter, and of the larger

tnmks the logs are selected to form the material from which the walls of all the buildings at that place are coustmcted.

The alders, willows, and a few other bushes attain a greater or less size, depending upon the situation and amount of protection afforded. I have seen as large stems of these shrubs growing within a mile of Fort Ghimo as I have seen at either Davis inlet or Eigolet.

The flowering plants are sparsely scattered over the northern areas, and then only in most suitable soils. The ground remains frozen from the last of October — earlier some seasons — to the last of May, or even into the middle of June. The appearance of the annuals is sudden, and they rapidly attain their full size and quickly fall before the chilling winds of autumn.

ANIMAL LIFE.

MAMMALS.

The marine mammals alone appear to be well known, but the number of cetaceans can certainly be increased above the number usually re- X>orted inhabiting the waters immediately bordering upon the region.

The phocids are best known for the reason that off the shores of southeast Labrador the pursuit of species of this family is carried on each spring to an extent probably surpassing that anywhere else on the face of the globe.

At the mouth of Little Whale river, the white whale is taken to the number of 500 each year, although the# capture is steadily decreasing. The Indians here do the greater part of the labor of driving, killing, flaying, and preserving them. At Fort Chimo another station for the pursuit of white whales is carried on. Here the Eskimo do the driving and killing, while the Indians perform the labor of removing the blubber and rendering it fit for the oil tanks into which it is placed to put it beyond the action of the weather. The skin of the white whale is tanned and converted into a leather of remarkably good quality, especially noted for being nearly waterproof.

Of the land mammals, the reindeer is probably the most abundant of all. It is found in immense numbers in certain localities, and forms for many of the inhabitants the principal source of subsistence, while to nearly all the residents its skins are absolutely necessary to protect them from the severity of the winter. *

The black, white and brown bears are common enough in their respective areas. The former rarely ranges beyond the woodlands, never being found so far north as Fort Ghimo. The white bear is common in the northern portions bordering the sea and is occasionally found as far south as the strait of Belleisle, to which it has been carried on icebergs or fields of ice. Akpatok island and the vicinity of Cape Ohidley are reported to be localities infested with these brutes. The brown or barren-ground bear appears to be restricted to a narrow area and is not

plentifiil, yet is common enough to keep the Indian in wholsome dread of its vicious disx>osition when enraged. *

The smaller mammals occur in greater or less abundance according to the quality and quantity of food to be obtained. The wolves, foxes, and wolverines are pretty evenly distributed throughout the region* The hares are found in the wooded tracts for the smaller species and on the barren regions for the larger species.

BIRDS.

The actual residents were accertained to be less than twenty species for the northern portion of the Ungava district.

Of the actual residents the two species of the genus Lagapus are the most abundant of all birds in the region, and form an important article of food for all classes of people inhabiting the district. The winter exerts an important influence on the smaller resident species. During the winter of 1882-'83 the number of the four species obtained of the genus Acanthu was almost incredible. Their notes might be heard at any time during that season, which was cold, though regularly so, and not specially stormy. In the winter of 1883-'84 not a single individual was ob- served from the middle of November to the last of March. The same remarks may well apply to the white- winged crossbill (Loxia UucopUra)y which was very abundant the first winter, but during the last winter a very small flock only was observed and these were apparently vagrants.

Among the water birds, certain species which were expected to occur were conspicuously absent. The character of the country forbids them rearing their young, as there is little to feed upon ; and only a few breed in the immediate vicinity of Fort Chimo. Among the gulls, Lams argentatuH smithsonianus is certainly the only one breeding in abundance within Ungava bay. Of the terns, the Arctic tern (Sterna paradisew) was the only one ascertained to breed in Hudson strait. I am not certain that they do breed there every year. Although I saw them in early July, 1883, under conditions that led me to believe that they were on their way to their nests, yet it was not until 1884 that su number of eggs were secured near that locality.

Of the smaller waders, but two species were actually ascertained to breed in the vicinity of Fort Chimo, yet two or three other species were observed under such circumstances as to leave no doubt that they also breed there.

'^HE NATIVE INHABITANTS OF THE COUNTRY— QENERAI^

SKETCH.

THE ESKIMO.

The northern portions of the coast of the region undCj: consideration are inhabited by the Eskimo, who designate themselves, as usual, by the term "Innuit," people (plural of innuls, '* a person"). That they have been much modified by contact with the whites is not to be doubted^

and it is equally certain that their language is constantly undergoing modifications to duit the purposes of the missionary and trader, who* not being able to pronounce the difficult guttural speech of these people, require them to conform to their own pronunciatiou. The region inhabited by the Innuit is strictly littoral. Iheir distribution falls properly into three subdivisions, due to the three subtribal distinctions which they maintain among themselves. The first sub division embraces all the Innuit dwelling on the Labrador coast proper and along the south side of Hudson strait to the mouth of Leaf river, which flows into Ungava bay.

These people apply the term Sft hi' nl myut to themselves and are thus known by the other subdivisions. This term is derived from Sft hi' ntlk, the sun, and the latter part of the word, meaning people (literally " those that dwell at or in ") ; hence, people of the sun, sunny side, because the sun shines on them first. At the present time these people are confined to the seashore and the adjacent islands, to which they repair for seals and other food. South of Hamilton inlet I could learn of but one of these people.

The Innuit of jiure blood do not begin to appear until the missionary station of Hopedale is reached. Here a number of families dwell, although mostly at the instigation of the missionaries. Between this station and Hebron are several other Moravian missionary stations, at each of which dwell a greater or less number of pure Innuit. North of Hebron to Cape Ohidley there are but few families, some seven in all, embracing a population of less than 40 souls. On the west side of Cape Chidley, as far as the mouth of George's river, only about eight families live. These with the George's river Innuit comprise less than 50 individuals. There is a stretch of coast bordering Ungava bay, from George's river to the Koksoak river, which is uninhabited.

The Koksoak river people include only four or five families and number less than 30 souls. The next people are those dwelling at the mouth of Leaf river, but they are more properly to be considered under the next subdivision.

The exact number of the Sfthlnlmyut could not be definitely determined. They are subdivided into a number of small communities, each bearing a name compounded of the name of their home and myut, " the people of."

The inhabitants of Oape Chidley are known as Ki lln'Ig m>Tit, from the word ki lln'Ik, wounded, cut, incised, lacerated; hence, serrated, an account of the character of the rough rocks and mountains.

The natives of George's river are known as Ean'guk^lua'luksoagmyut; those of the Koksoak river are known as Koksoagniyut.

The second subdivision includes the Innuit dwelling on the area lying between the mouth of Leaf river, thence northward, and alon^ the south side of Hudson strait. Their western and southern limit extends to about latitude 60o.

Those Iiinoit are known by tlie other subdivisions as Ta hdg myut. They apply the same term to themselves. The word is derived from Tsi hak, a shiidow; henee people of the shade or shadow as distinguished from the Sdl hi' ul myut, or people of the light or sunshine. These people are but little influenced by contact with the white traders, who api)ly to them the term " Northerners." Their habits and cus- toms are primitive, and many appear to be entirely distinct from the customs of their neighbors south and east. The chai*acter of the region in which they dwell is very rugged. Huge mountain spars and short ranges ramify in every direction, forming deep valleys and ravines, along which these people must travel to reach the trading station of Fort Ohimo of the Ungava district, or else to Fort George of the Moose district.

The distance to the former is so great that only three, four, or five sledges are annually sent to the trading post for the purpose of (conveying the furs and other more valuable commodities to be bartereil for ammunition, guns, knives, files and other kinds of hardware, and tobacco. Certain i)ersons are selected from the various camps who have personally made the trip and know the trail. These are commissioned to barter the furs of each individual for special sirticles, which are mentioned and impressed uiK)n the mind of the man who is to effect the trade. The x>rinci])al furs are those of the various foxes. Among them are to be found the best class of silver foxes, and wolverenes and wolves. Those to be sent are procured the previous winter, and when the snow falls in November or early December the line of sleds starts out for the trading post. The sled which represents the want« of the more western of these Innuit speeds U^ where the second may be, and they repair to the place of meeting with the third, and thus by traversing the line of coast the arctic caravan is made up. Provisions are supplied by the wayside, and when all is in readiness a southern course is traveled until the frozen morasses on the south of the hills are reached. Thence the course is toward Leaf river and across to Fort Ghimo. By the last week of April or the first week of May the visitors are expected at the trading post. They usually bring with them about two-fifths of all the furs obtained in the district; indeed, the quantity often exceeds this amount. They seldom remain hmger than the time needed to complete their bartering, as the rapidly melting snow warns them that each day of delay adds to their labor in returning.

The homeward journey is more frequently made along the coast, as there the snow is certain to remain longer u|)on the ground. It is not infrequent that these travelers experience warm weather, which detains them so long that they do not reach the end of their journey until the middle of the summer or even until the beginning of the next winter. Many of the Innuit whe accompany these ]>arties have never seen white men until they, arrive at Fort Chimo; women are often of the party. These people are usually tall and of fine physique. The men are larger

11 ETH 12

than the average white man, while the women compare favorably in stature with the women of medium height in other countries.

They have quite different customs from those of their present neighbors. Their language is dialectically distinct; about as much so as the Malimyut differ from the Kaviagmyut of Korton Sound, Alaska. The Tahagmyut have a rather harsh tone; their gutturals are deeper and the vowels usually rather more prolonged. They are much given to amusement and still retain many of the old games, which the SClhl'nlmyut have forgotten or no longer engage in. Their dead are treated with no ceremony. They simply lash the limbs of the deceased to the body and expose the corpse to the elements, removing it, however, from immediate sight of the camp. Old and infirm people are treated with severity, and when dependent upon others for their food they are summarily disposed of by strangulation or left to i)eri8h when the camp is moved.

Women are held in little resi)ect, although the men are very jealous of the favors of their wives, and incontinence on the part of the latter is certain to be more or less severely punished. The male offender, if notoriously i)ersistent in his efforts to obtain forbidden favors, is usually killed by the injured lover or husband.

Gambling is carried on to such a degree among both sexes that even their own live^ are staked upon the issue of a game. The winner often obtains the wife of his opponent, and holds her until some tempting offer is made for her return. The only article they possess is frequently wagered, and when they lose they are greeted with derision. The women, especially, stake their only garment rather than be without opportunity to play. The usual game is played with a number of flattened pieces of walrus ivory. On one side are a number of dots forming various crude designs, which have received names from their fancied resemblance to other objects. These must be matched. The game some- what resembles dominoes, and whether it is original with these Innuit I was unable to conclude. They stoutly maintain that it originated with themselves. I suspect, however, it had its origin in the imitation of some one who had observed the playing of dominoes on board of some of the whaling vessels visiting these waters.

For other amusements these Innuit indulge in a number of tests of personal strength, such as wrestling and leaping.

Feasts are held at stated times in huge structures built of snow blocks. The exact signification of these feasts was not learned, owing to the limited stay these people made each year at Fort Chimo. Their dress consists of the skins of seals and reindeer. The sealskins are worn during rainy weather and by those who are in the canoe or kaiak. The skirts of their garments are ornamented with an edging of ivory pieces cut into a )>ear-shai>e, having a small hole pierced through the smaller end.

These pieces of ivory, often to the number of many scores, give a

peculiar rattle as the wearer walks along. Their boot« are noticeably different from those made by the Koksoak river people, inasmuch as the soles are often made with strips of sealskin thongs sewed on a false sole, which is attached to the under surface of the sole proper. The strips of thong are tacked on by a stout stitch, then a short loop is taken up, and another stitch sews a portion of the remainder of the strip. This is continued until the entire under surface consists of a series of short loops, which, when in contact with the smooth ice, prevents the foot from slipping. This sort of footgear is not made in any other portion of the district.

The third subdivision comprises the Innuit dwelling on the eastern shore of Hudson bay, between latitudes 53° and 58°.

The number of these Innuit could not be definitely ascertained, as they trade, for the most part, at Fort George, belonging to the Moose district. Each year, however, a party of less than a dozen indiviuals journey to Fort Chimo for the purpose of bartering furs and other valuables. Those who come to Fort Ghimo are usually the same each year. In language they differ greatly from the Koksoak Innuit, inasmuch as their speech is very rapid and much harsher. Many of the words are quite dissimilar, and even where the word has the same sound it is not unusual that it has a meaning more or less different from that used by the Koksoak Innuit. As these people have been long under the advice and teachings of the missionary society of London, it is to be expected

m

that they, especially those nearer the trading station, are more or less influenced by its teachings. Their customs differ somewhat from the other Innuit, though this is due in a great measure to the imiK)ssibility of procuring the necessary food, and skins for garments, unless they are constantly scouring the plains and hills for reindeer or the shore for seals and other marine creatures.

These people are called by their neighbors and themselves I'tivi' myut, Iti'vdk signifies the other, farther, distant side (of a portion of land); hence, the word Itivimyut means people of the other side. The northern Itivimyut are probably the most su{)erstitious of all the Innuit dwelling in the region under consideration.

Although the missionaries have devoted considerable energy to the work of converting these people, and though many of them profess Christianity, these professions prove on examination to be merely nominal. As soon as the converts are beyond the teacher's influence, they return to the shaman for guidance.

In the spring of 1883 a party of these people visited Fort Ohimo. A great number of the Koksoak people were ill, some 30 miles above the station. The visitors had among them a shaman renowned throughout the land. He, with the connivance of two or three of the people with whom he stopped, began some of the most astonishing intrigues to dispel the evil spirit afflicting the people. Several men were parted from their wives, and these were compelled to dwell with other men

180 THE HUDSON BAT ESKIMO.

who were at the bottom of the conspiracy. Other couples had to flee from that place to prevent being divorced, at least temporarily. After a time the visitors descended t6 Fort Chimo, and while the bartering was going on the shaman announced his conversion to Ghristianityy and vowed never again to return to practicing shamanism. On the return of the harried fugitives they passed the camp of the Koksoak river people, where they had a few days before been the guests, and stole their supplies of reindeer meat and other valuable property, even attempting to purloin a kaiak; and they had proceeded many miles thence before they were overtaken and compelled to relinquish the stolen property. They were seen some months after by some Tahagmyut, to whom they stated their fear of returning among the Koksoak people. A more plausible scamp does not dwell in those regions than this shaman, whose name is S4pa. His jwwer over the spirit* controlling the reindeer is widely believed in and invoked by the other sha- mans, who feel incapable of turning the heads of the deer and thus comx)elling them to wander in the desired direction.

Among these x)eople only have I heard of a son who took his mother as a wife, and when the sentiment of the community compelled him to discard her he took two other women, who were so persecuted by the mother that they believed themselves to be wholly under her influence. She even caused them to believe they were ill, and when they actually did become so they both died.

In former years the liinuit extended entirely around the shore of Hudson bay. Now there is a very wide gap, extending from the vicinity of Fort George, on the eastern coast, to the vicinity of Fort Churchill, on the western coast. At the present time the Innuit occui)y the area^s designated in these remarks. That they formerly extended along the Atlantic coast far to the south of their present limit is attested by an abundance of facts.

The Innuit of the eastern shore of Hudson bay, the Itivimyut, informed me that the Innuit dwelling on the islands of Hudson bay, more or less remote from the mainland to the east, are termed Ki'glktag'myut, or island people. They relate that those islanders have quite different customs from the mainland people, inasmuch as their clothing consists of the skins of seals and dogs, rarely of reindeer skins, as the latter are procurable only when one of their number comes to the shore to trade for such articles as can not be obtained on his locality. The spear, kaiak, bow and arrow are used, and they have but little knowledge of firearms. These people are represented as often being driven to greatest extremity for food. It is said that their language difiers considerably from that of their neighbors.

The Innuit, as a rule, are x)eaceful and mild-tempered, except when aroused by jealousy. They are, however, quick enough to resent an insult or avenge an injury. They form a permanent attachment for the white man who deaJs honestly and truthfully with them, but

TUHK»Li THE INDIANS. 181

if he attempts any deception or trickery they are certain to be ever suspicious of him, and it is difficult to regain their favor.

Their courage and ability are not to be doubted, and when they are given a due amount of encouragement they will perform the most arduous tasks without complaint.

THE INDIANS.

The Indian inhabitants of this region may be divided into three groups, differing but slightly in speech, and even less in habits.

(1) The Mountaineers, '^Montagnais" of the early Jesuit missionaries, roam over the areas south of the Hamilton inlet and as far as the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Their western limits are imperfectly known. They trade at all the stations along the accessible coast. Many of them barter at Rigolet and Northwest river.

In customs they differ little from the Indians to the north of them. Their means of subsistence are the flesh of reindeer, porcupines, and various birds, such as geese, ducks, ptarmigan, and grouse.

The habits of the reindeer in this portion of the country are very erratic. They are often absent from large tracts for several years, and appearing in abundance when little expected. The scarcity of the reindeer renders the food supply quite precarious; hence, the Indians rely much upon the flesh of the porcupine, hare and birds for their principal food.

Their clothing is of the tanned skin of the deer when they are able to procure it. As nearly all the skins of the reindeer are used for garments, few are prepared for other purposes; hence the northern stations (Fort Chimo) furnish great numbers of the^e skins in the parchment condition to be purchased by the Mountaineers, who cut them into fine lines for snowshoe netting and other purposes.

They procure the furs of marten, mink, fur beaver, muskrats, lynxes, wolverines, wolves, and foxes. A considerable number of black bears are also obtained by these Indians. By the barter of these furs they procure the articles made necessary by the advent of the white people among them. They are quiet and peaceable. Many of them profess a regard for the tea(*.hings of the Roman missionaries, who have visited them more or less frequently for over a hundred and fifty years. I was unable to obtain the term by which they distinguish themselves from their neighbors. That they are later comers in the region than the Innuit is attested by the bloody warfare formerly carried on between them, of which many x>roofs yet exist. The Mountaineers applied to the more northern Indians the term of reproach, ^'Naskopie.'' This word denotes the contempt the Mountaineers felt for the Naskopies when the latter failed to fulfill their promise to assist in driving the Innuit from the country.

It was impossible to obtain a satisfactory estimate of the numbers of the Mountaineers. My stay in their vicinity was too short to learn as much about them as was desired.

182 THE HUDSOK BAT ESKIMO.

(2) Tiut IndiarjH dwelling to tbe soothwest of the UngsTa differ rather mtfre than the Mountaineem, in their speecb, from the IndianH of the T'ligava diKtricL They average, for both sexea, alightly taller than the NankojiieH. The men are spare, and have small limbe and extremiti«fM. The cheek brmes are also more prominent, althovgfa this In j>artly <\ne tr> the thin visage. The women are disposed to be Htotit, and in the older women there is a decided tendency to eorpnlence. The i'X)mphfxioii, t‹K›, is c^onsiderably darker. The men wear long hair, usually cut m> hh Uf fall just upon the shonlders. The hair of the women Ik quiU; heavy, and is worn either in braids or done up in folds upon the side of the he^uL

In their i>erw>nal habits they are much more tidy than their eastern relations. Their dress dififers but little from that of their neighbors. Th<'. women dress in cloth made of material procured from the traders, and some of tliesi* a[>i>ear res]>ectable enough when so dressed. They have lNf4*n so long in CMintact with the white people at Moose Factory, Mime of whom had brought their wives from home with them, that the women have imitat(*d the dress of the latter. Certain of these women }irc skflHul in working fanc^y articles. The men occupy their time in hunting and fishing. The reindeer have in recent years become so scarce in the vicinity of Fort (h^rge that many of the Indians have left that hN'ality and journeyed! to the eastward, dwelling in proximity to the NaskopicH, or even with them.

Hoth sexes are mild and sedate, although the women are exceedingly garrulous when well }u;quainte4l.

TlMse Indians are oft^'.n employed to assist in the capture of the white whale, wlii(;li as(^nds the lower ])ortions of the larger streams of thtit distrit't. They arc the only Indians whom I have seen eating the Hesh and blubber of these whales. The Naskopies will not touch it, declaring it to be too fat. The fins and tail are portions highly prized while they are helping render out the blubber of these whales at Fort ( )himo.

A point of great dissimilarity between the Naskopies and the Little Whale river Indians is that the birch-bark canoe of the latter is much more turned up at em^h end, produ(;ing a craft well adapted to the swift currents of the rivers. The occupants are skillful boatmen, and will fearlessly ftUMi wind and wave that would appall the heart of the Nasko))ie. Sails are sometimes erected in a single canoe. At times two canoes are lashed together and a sail spread f^om a single mast. This double boat is very convenient for the traveler. These people art^ strongly addicted to the practice of polygamy; and while they are (Christians externally, they are so only a49 long as they are within the re«u*h of the missioniu'y.

Among those who had come to dwell in the Ungava district were sevenil who had, because of the opportunity, taken two wives. The missionary, U. J. Peck, suddenly api>eared among them as he was on

his way to Loudon. On learning of tho conduct of the people he gave them a sound rating and besought them to relinquish the practice. They assented, and sent the second wives away until the missionary was out of the country, and then they took them back.

Girls are often taken as wives before they attain puberty, and for this reason they seldom have large families. Two, three, or four children form the usual number for each family. They are satisfied if the first child is a male; and to the mother who delivers only female children a term of contempt is often applied. The women appear to be well treated, and occasional laxity of morals is not noticed among them so long as it is not notorious.

Their beliefs and traditions were not learned by me, on account of the presence of these i>eople at Fort Chimo when other labors occupied my entire time.

. Their x)urchases are made with Airs of the same kinds as those procured in the Ungava district. The black bear is procured in great numbers by these Indians. They preserve the under lip, dressed and ornamented with beads and strips of cloth, as a trophy of their prowess.

The harpoon used in striking the white whale of their rivers is an implement doubtless peculiar to those people, and much resembles that of the Innuit.

(3) The third division of Indians includes those dwelling for the most part in the Ungava district. The total number of these Indians is about 350. They apply the term Ne n6 not — true, ideal men — to themselves, although known by the epithet Naskopie, which was applied to them by the Mountaineers of the southeastern portion of the region.

They differ slightly in customs from their neighbors, but their speech is somewhat different, being very rapidly uttered and with most singular inflections of the voice. A conversation may be begun in the usual tone, and in a moment changed to that of a whining or i)etulant child. It is impossible for the white man to imitate this abrupt inflection, which appears to be more common among the males than the females. During ordinary conversation one would erroneously suppose, from the vehemence of gesture, that the speaker was angry. They are much more demonstrative than their neighbors, often shouting at the full strength of their voices when an ordinary tone would apparently suffice. That their voice is penetrating may be inferred from the fact that during quiet days it is not unusual for parties to converse from opposite sides of the Koksoak river, at Fort Chimo, where the river is nearly a mile and a half wide.

As certain words are siK)ken in a voice scarcely louder than a whisper, I did not believe it possible that they could understand each other at so great a distance, until I saw the people on the opposite shore doing what they were bidden by those with me.

When the women get together it is amusing to observe the eagerness

184 THE HUD»ON BAY ESKIMO.

of tlie old (ToneH I'lndeavoring to make their voices beard above the reMt. Tho ('Jerk, while tradiug with them, often teases them autil the eiitln^ number turn their voices on him, and the only relief he has is to expel them all from the store and admit one or two at a time, while the remainder throng the windows and shout at the top of their voices.

During the s))riiig, when flocks of Canada geese are winging their way northward, the Indians will imitate their notes so closely that the binU do not discover the source until too late. Some of the party nuike one nott^ while the others imitate the other note. It seldom fails to Ix^guile the geese to the spot.

Owing to tlit^ impossibility of getting a reliable person to teach me the language of tluwe peo))le I was able to procure but few words. TIh^ number obtained, however, is sufficient to prove that the people of this region, excluding the Innuit and whites, belong to the Cree branch. TIh». Mountaineers and Little Whale river Indians belong to the same stock, and the difference in their language is due wholly to environment.

The Indians and Innuit of this region are more or less directly in (•ont4U».t. At Fort Ohiino it is especially so. Here, as elsewhere, they tlo not intermix, an Indian never taking an Innuit wife or the Innuit taking a squaw tor a wife. I knew of one instance where a Naskopie went U^ dwt»ll with S4>me Innuit camped near the mouth of the Koksiiak, but at\er remaining away for a few days he returned to his own |MM>ple.

SPKCIAL ACCOUNT OP THE PEOPLE AROUND PORT CHIMO.

TUK KOKS*»AGMYrT.

The Kskimo with whom I was brought in contact at Fort Chimo were tliose U'ltuiging ti> that immediate vicinity. They term themselves Koksoagmyul, or |HM>plo of the Koksoak or Big river.

The |HH>ple who apply this name to themselves do not number more than a seon^ and a hsUf. There are but fimr famihes. and among these art^ st>me who In^long to other li>calities, but now dwell with the Kok s‹vagiu\ ut« They oi›nsider themselves a |>art of the pei>ple dwelling as far to the north as the western end of Akpatok island, anil to the east as far as tuN>rgi**s river. The Kskinn> dwelling lH»tween those points have similar h:ibits, and ningt^ indiscriminately over the hunting gnmnds of that Uvality^ seldom gt>ing farther southwainl than thecontlueihv of the l^an^h river or the Norih river with the Kok:k>;ik.

Among these few nativ^v^ now inhabiting the Kokso;ik valley we find the wun^ to W aKwe the statun^ usuallv as^»rilM^d to the Eskimo, All but owe of the a^iult males an* aK>ve o tVvT S inches. The smallest ma^i is btlK> more than ^| ftvt tall. All are well pn>iv^rtioneil and present an e*vpUonall>' gx^>i phrsi«)ue. The fem;iles are alsi^ w^-ll pn> I^HiHMH^K aiHi» in t5ot ap^^etar to \>m)Mrv well with females of oiviliied

TURNM.J ABOUND PORT CHIMO. 185

countries as far as their stature is concerued. The lower extremities of both sexes really are shorter than the general appearance would indicate, and thus the body is somewhat longer. The great individual variation in the proportional length of the legs is doubtless the result of the way infants are carried in the hood on the backs of the mothers. In this constrained position the limbs were obliged to conform to the shape of the body on which the child, in a manner, grew. While the limbs are not decidedly curved, yet they are not so nearly under the body as those of the whites. In walking, the inner edges of the feet often touch each other, and, in a manner, tend to cause the boots to slip outward on the feet.

The head, hands, and feet appear fairly proportioned; although, as a rule, they have small hands and feet. The females have proportionally smaller feet than hands. The head may seem larger than it really is, on account of the flattened features of the face.

The average nose is large and flat, and the prominence of this organ is often diminished by the wide cheeks and overhanging forehead. In most cases the chin projects less than the nose. The average face is round and flat, but there are exceptions, as I have seen one or two persons whose faces were a regular oval, and with the exception of the flat front, seen from a side view, were as well formed aa one will meet among other people.

The skin has the same difierences of color as among white people. The greater number of people are moderately dark, but this depends very greatly on the season of the year. I have not seen any white people so much changed aa these are by the exposure to the summer sunshine. In the winter they are confined to their huts and bleach to a lighter color. A couple of weeks' exposure renders them scarcely recognizable as the same persons. The young children are usually lighter than the adults, although some are quite dark. The hair is coarse, long and abundant, and always straight.

The few half breeds seen at Fort Chimo are the young children of the male servants of the company, who have in two instances taken full-bloode<l Eskimo women for wives and who were married by the agent of the company. These children are quite pretty, the male favoring the mother and the girl resembling the father. With these, as with the children of natives, much depends on the cleanliness of the person. The soot and other filth accumulating on their faces and hands, seldom washed, of course modifies the appearance of the exposed portions of the body. Some of the girls would be attractive enough if a copious amount of water was used to remove the ridges of dirt which are too plainly visible. The hands are often much disfigured from numerous cuts and bruises, which, when healed over, leave a heightened scar of a whitish color quite difllerent in color from the surrounding tissue and often presenting an unsightly appearance.

By the time puberty is attained the girls quickly change, and in a few

186 THE HUDSON BAT ESKIMO.

years begin to show the result of their arduous life by the appearance of wrinkles, haggardness, and general breaking down, which, although it may progress slowly, is seldom recovered from.

Like the rest of the Innuit, the Koksoagmyut are usually x>^aceftil and mild tempered. Among themselves af&ays are of rare occurrence. Jealousy arouses the worst passions, and the murder of the offender is generally the result. When a person becomes so bad in character that the community will no longer tolerate his presence he is forbidden to enter the huts, partake of food, or hold any intercourse with the rest. Nevertheless, as long as he threatens no one's life, but little attention is paid to him. Should he be guilty of a murder, several men watch their opportunity to surprise him and put him to death, usually by stoning. The executioners make no concealment of their action, and are supported by public opinion in the community.

In the case of a premeditated murder, it is the duty of the next of kin to avenge the deed, though years may pass, while the murderer pursues his usual occupations undisturbed, before an opportunity occurs to the relative for taking him by surprise. Sometimes the victim is not overcome and turns upon the assailant and kills him. The man, now guilty of two murders, is suftered to live only at the pleasure of the people, who soon decree his death. That murder is not approved, either by the individual or the community, is well attested by the fact that the island of Akpatok is now tabooed since the murder of part of the crew of a wrecked vessel, .who camped on that island. Such a terrible scene was too much, even for them ; and now not a soul visits that locality, lest the ghosts of the victims should appear and supplicate relief from the natives, who have not the proper offerings to make to appease them.

Aged people who have.no relatives on whom they may depend for subsistence are often quietly put to death. When an old woman, for instance, becomes a burden to the coinmuuity it is usual for her to be neglected until so weak from want of food that she will be unable to keep up with the people, who suddenly are seized with a desire to remove to a distant locality. If she regains their camp, well for her; otherwise, she struggles along until exhausted and soon perishes. Sometimes three or four of the males retrace their steps to recover a lost whip or a forgotten ammunition bag. They rarely go farther than where they find the helpless person, and if their track be followed it will be found that the corpse has stones piled around it and is bound with thongs.

An old woman at Fort Chimo hiid but one eye, and this was continually sore and very annoying to the people with whom she lived. They proposed to strangle her to relieve her from her misery. The next morning the eye was much better and the prox)osed cure was postponed.

Cases of suicide are not rare, considering the few people of that

TUBiatBl DISEASES. 187

locality. Pitching themselves from a cliff or producing strangalation are the usual methods. Sometimes a gun is used. Kemorse and disappointed love are the only causes of suicide.

A man discovered, during a period of great scarcity or food, that while he went in quest of food his wife had secretly stored away a quantity of fish and ate of them during his absence only. Coming home unexpectedly, he caught her eating and she endeavored to secrete the remainder. He quietly went out of the snow hut and blocked up the entrance. She inquired why he did so. His reply was for her to come out and she would discover why it was done. His tone was not at all reassuring. She remained within the hut and perished from starvation, knowing she would be killed if she went out.

Instances are reported where, in times of great scarcity, families have been driven to cannibalism after eating their dogs and the clothing and ofiier articles made of skins. Unlucky or disliked women are often driven ftom the camp, and such must journey until they find relief or perish by the wayside.

DI8BASK8.

The principal diseases from which these people suffer are pulmonary troubles, chiefiy arising from their filthy manner of living in crowded huts, too ill ventilated to allow the escape of the odors emanating from their own bodies and from accumulations of slowly deconii)osing animal food. All oi)enings must be closed as quickly as possible in order to economize the heat within, for when once chilled it is diflicult to restore the house to the proper degree of warmth. An Eskimo would always prefer to erect a new hut of snow rather than pass the night in one which has been deserted for only a single night if the doorway has not been tightly cU)sed with a block of snow.

Within the walls, reeking with the exhalations of various putrid matters, the people breathe and rebreathe the air filled with poisonous gases; so fully one-half of the Eskimo die of pulmonary troubles. The other prevailing diseases are those causing devitalization of the blood, such as scurvy. Sores break out on the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles. The ravages of these diseases proceed at an astonishing rate, soon carrying off the afflicted person.

The means of relief usually employed are those which the shaman (or conjurer, sis he is locally known) is able to effect by working on the imagination of the sick, who is in this condition easily influenced. The will power of both the patient and shaman is stretched to its utmost tension, and as faith with them, as with many others of fairer skins, often produces more of the relief than the ministrations of drugs or drafts, the cure is effected, or else the shaman, like the physician, has not the devil on his side.

The magnitude of the disease is generaUy measured by the amount of the patient's worldly wealth.

years begin to show the result of their arduous life by the appearance of wrinkles, haggardness, and general breaking down, which, although it may progress slowly, is seldom recovered from.

Like the rest of the Inimit, the Koksoagmyut are usually peaceftil and mild tempered. Among themselves af&ays are of rare occurrence. Jealousy arouses the worst passions, and the murder of the offender is generally the result. When a person becomes so bad in character that the community will no longer tolerate his presence he is forbidden to enter the hut«, partake of food, or hold any intercourse with the rest. Nevertheless, as long as he threatens no one's life, but little attention is paid to him. Should he be guilty of a murder, several men watch their opportunity to surprise him and put him to death, usually by stoning. The executioners make no concealment of their action, and are supported by public opinion in the community.

In the case of a premeditated murder, it is the duty of the next of kin to avenge the deed, though years may pass, while the murderer pursues his usual occupations undisturbed, before an opportunity occurs to the relative for taking him by surprise. Sometimes the victim is not overcome and turns upon the assailant and kills him. The man, now guilty of two murders, is suffered to live only at the pleasure of the people, who soon decree his death. That murder is not approved, either by the individual or the community, is well attested by the fact that the islaiid of Akpatok is now tabooed since the murder of part of the crew of a wrecked vessel, .who camped on that island. Such a terrible scene was too much, even for them ; and now not a soul visits that locality, lest the ghosts of the victims should appear and supplicate relief from the natives, who have not the proper offerings to make to appease them.

Aged people who have.no relatives on whom they may depend for subsistence are often quietly put to death. When an old woman, for instance, becomes a burden to the community it is usual for her to be neglected until so weak from want of food that she will be unable to keep up with the people, who suddenly are seized with a desire to remove to a distant locality. If she regains their camp, well for her; otherwise, she struggles along until exhausted and soon perishes. Sometimes three or four of the males retrace their steps to recover a lost whip or a forgotten ammunition bag. They rarely go farther than where they find the helpless person, and if their track be followed it will be found that the corpse has stones piled around it and is bound with thongs.

An old woman at Fort Ghimo had but one eye, and this was continually sore and very annoying t^ the people with whom she Uved. They proposed to strangle her to relieve her from her misery. The next morning the eye was much better and the prox)osed cure was postponed.

Cases of suicide are not rare, considering the few people of that

TUBNEBl DISEASES. 187

locality. Pitching themselves from a cliff or producing strangulation are the usual methods. Sometimes a gun is used. Remorse and disappointed love are the only causes of suicide.

A man discovered, during a period of great scarcity or food, that while he went in quest of food his wife had secretly stored a\fay a quantity of fish and ate of them during his absence only. Coming home unexpectedly, he caught her eating and she endeavored to secrete the remainder. lie quietly went out of the snow hut and blocked up the entrance. She inquired why he did so. His reply was for her to come out and she would discover why it was done. His tone was not at all reassuring. She remained within the hut and perished from starvation, knowing she would be killed if she went out.

Instances are reported where, in times of great scarcity, families have been driven to cannibalism after eating their dogs and the clothing and other articles made of skins. Unlucky or disliked women are often driven from the camp, and such must journey until they find relief or perish by the wayside.

DISBASRS.

Tlie principal diseases from which these people suffer are pulmonary troubles, chiefly arising from their filthy manner of living iu crowded huts, too ill ventilated to allow the escape of the odors emanating from their own bodies and from accumulations of slowly decomposing animal food. All openings must be closed as quickly as possible in order to economize the heat within, for when once chilled it is difiicult to restore the house to the proper degree of warmth. An Eskimo would always prefer to erect a new hut of snow rather than pass the night in one which has been deserted for only a single night if the doorway has not been tightly closed with a block of snow.

Within the walls, reeking with the exhalations of various putrid matters, the people breathe and rebreathe the air filled with poisonous gases; so fully one-half of the Eskimo die of pulmonary troubles. The other prevailing diseases are those causing devitalization of the blood, such as scurvy. Sores break out on the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles. The ravages of these diseases proceed at an astonishing rate, soon carrying off the afflicted person.

The means of relief usually employed are those which the shaman (or conjurer, as he is locally known) is able to effect by working on the imagination of the sick, who is in this condition easily influenced. The will power of both the patient and shaman is stretched to its utmost tension, and as faith with them, as with many others of fairer skins, often produces more of the relief than the ministrations of drugs or drafts, the cure is effected, or else the shaman, like the physician, has not the devil on his side.

The magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount of the patient's worldly wealth.

years begin to show the result of their arduous life by the appearance of wrinkles, haggardness, and general breaking down, which, although it may progress slowly, is seldom recovered from.

Like the rest of the Inuuit, the Koksoagmyut are usually peaceftil and mild tempered. Among themselves affrays are of rare occurrence. Jealousy arouses the worst passions, and the murder of the offender is generally the result. When a person becomes so bad in character that the community will no longer tolerate his presence he is forbidden to enter the huts, partake of food, or hold any intercourse with the rest Nevertheless, as long as he threatens no one's life, but little attention is paid to him. Should he be guilty of a murder, several men watch their opportunity to surprise him and put him to death, usually by stoning. The executioners make no concealment of their action, and are supported by public opinion in the community.

In the ease of a premeditated murder, it is the duty of the next of kin to avenge the deed, though years may pass, while the murderer pursues his usual occupations undisturbed, before an opportunity occurs to the relative for taking him by surprise. Sometimes the victim is not overcome and turns upon the assailant and kills him. The man, now guilty of two murders, is suffered to live only at the pleasure of the people, who soon decree his death. That murder is not approved, either by the individual or the community, is well attested by the fact l^at the islaiid of Akpatok is now tabooed since the murder of part of the crew of a wrecked vessel, .who camped on that island. Such a terrible scene was too much, even for them ; and now not a soul visits that locality, lest the ghosts of the victims should appear and supplicate relief from the natives, who have not the proper offerings to make to appease them.

Aged people who have.no relatives on whom they may depend for subsistence are often quietly put to death. When an old woman, for instance, becomes a burden to the community it is usual for her to be neglected until so weak from want of food that she will be unable to keep up with the people, who suddenly are seized with a desire to remove to a distant locality. If she regains their camp, well for her; otherwise, she struggles along until exhausted and soon perishes. Sometimes tliree or four of the males retrace their steps to recover a lost whip or a forgotten ammunition bag. They rarely go farther than where they find the helpless person, and if their track be followed it will be found that the corpse has stones piled around it and is bound with thongs.

An old woman at Fort Chimo had but one eye, and this was continually sore and very annoying to the people with whom she Uved. They proposed to strangle her to relieve her from her misery. The next morning the eye was much better and the proposed cure was postponed.

Cases of suicide are not rare, considering the few people of that

Tu»NiB.i DISEASES. 187

locality. Pitching themselves from a cliff or producing strangulation are the usual methods. Sometimes a gun is used. Remorse and disappointed love are the only causes of suicide.

A man discovered, during a period of great scarcity or food, that while he went in quest of food his wife had secretly stored a\fay a quantity of fish and ate of them during his absence only. Coming home unexpectedly, he caught her eating and she endeavored to secrete the remainder. lie quietly went out of the snow hut and blocked up the entrance. She inquired why he did so. His reply was for her to come out and she would discover why it was done. His tone was not at all reassuring. She remained within the hut and perished from starvation, knowing she would be killed if she went out.

Instances are reported where, in times of great scarcity, families have been driven to cannibalism after eating their dogs and the clothing and otiher articles made of skins. Unlucky or disliked women are often driven from the camp, and such must journey until they find relief or perish by the wayside.

DISKASRS.

The principal diseases from which these people snlfer are pulmonary troubles, chiefly arising from their filthy manner of living in crowded huts, too ill ventilated to allow the escape of the odors emanating from their own bodies and from accumulations of slowly decom]:>osing animal food. All openings must be closed as quickly as possible in order to economize the heat within, for when once chilled it is difilcult to restore the house to the proper degree of warmth. An Eskimo would always prefer to erect a new hut of snow rather than pass the night in one which has been deserted for only a single night if the doorway has not been tightly closed with a block of snow.

Within the walls, reeking with the exhalations of various putrid matters, the people breathe and rebreathe the air filled with poisonous gases; so fully one-half of the Eskimo die of pulmonary troubles. The other prevailing diseases are those causing devitalization of the blood, such as scurvy. Sores break out on the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles. The ravages of these diseases proceed at an astonishing rate, soon carrying off the afflicted person.

The means of relief usually employed are those which the shaman (or conjurer, iis he is locally known) is able to effect by working on the imagination of the sick, who is in this condition easily influenced. The will power of both the patient and shaman is stretched to its utmost tension, and as faith with them, as with many others of fairer skins, often produces more of the relief than the ministrations of drugs or drafts, the cure is effected, or else the shaman, like the physician, has not the devil on his side.

The magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount of the patient's worldly wealth.

186 THE HUDSON BAT ESKIMO.

years begiu to show the result of their arduous life by the appearance of wrinkles, haggardness, and general breaking down, which, although it may progress slowly, is seldom recovered from.

Like the rest of the Innuit, the Koksoagmyut are usually peaceftil and mild tempered. Among themselves af&ays are of rare occurrence. Jealousy arouses the worst passions, and the murder of the offender is generally the result. When a person becomes so bad in character that the community will no longer tolerate his presence he is forbidden to enter the huts, partake of food, or hold any intercourse with the rest. Nevertheless, as long as he threatens no one's life, but little attention is paid to him. Should he be guilty of a murder, several men watch their opportunity to surprise him and put him to death, usually by stoning. The executioners make no concealment of their action, and are supported by public opinion in the community.

In the case of a premeditated murder, it is the duty of the next of kin to avenge the deed, though years may pass, while the murderer pursues his usual occupations undisturbed, before an opportunity occurs to the relative for taking him by surprise. Sometimes the victim is not overcome and turns upon the assailant and kills him. The man, now guilty of two murders, is suffered to live only at the pleasure of the people, who soon decree his death. That murder is not approved, either by the individual or the community, is well attested by the fact -ttiat the islaiid of Akpatok is now tabooed since the murder of part of the crew of a wrecked vessel, .who camped on that island. Such a terrible scene was too much, even for them ; and now not a soul visits that locality, lest the ghosts of the victims should appear and supplicate relief from the natives, who have not the proper offerings to make to appease them.

Aged people who have.no relatives on whom they may depend for subsistence are often quietly put to death. When an old woman, for instance, becomes a burden to the community it is usual for her to be neglected until so weak from want of food that she will be unable to keep up with the people, who suddenly are seized with a desire to remove to a distant locality. If she regains their camp, well for her; otherwise, she struggles along untU exhausted and soon perishes. Sometimes three or four of the males retrace their steps to recover a lost whip or a forgotten ammunition bag. They rarely go farther than where they find the helpless person, and if their track be followed it will be found that the corpse has stones piled around it and is bound with thongs.

An old woman at Fort Ohimo had but one eye, and this was continually sore and very annoying to the people with whom she Uved. They proposed to strangle her to relieve her from her misery. The next morning the eye was much better and the proposed cure was postponed.

Cases of suicide are not rare, considering the few people of that

Tu»NiB.i DISEASES. 187

locality. Pitclilug themselves from a cliff or produciug strangulation are the usual methods. Sometimes a gun is used. Remorse and disappointed love are the only causes of suicide.

A man discovered, during a period of great scarcity or food, that while he went in quest of foo<l his wife had secretly stored away a quantity of fish and ate of them during his absence only. Coming home unexpectedly, he caught her eating and she endeavored to secrete the remainder. He quietly went out of the snow hut and blocked up the entrance. She inquired why he did so. His reply was for her to come out and she would discover why it was done. His tone was not at all reassuring. She remained within the hut and perished from starvation, knowing she would be killed if she went out.

Instances are reported where, in times of great scarcity, families have been driven to cannibalism after eating their dogs and the clothing and otlier articles made of skins. Unlucky or disliked women are often driven from the camp, and such must journey until they find relief or perish by the wayside.

DISBASK8.

The principal diseases from which these people imffer are pulmonary troubles, chiefly arising from their filthy manner of living in crowded huts, too ill ventilat'Cd to allow the escape of the odors emanating from their own bodies and from accumulations of slowly decomposing animal food. All openings must be closed as quickly as possible in order to economize the heat within, for when once chilled it is difficult to restore the house to the proper degree of warmth. An Eskimo would always prefer to erect a new hut of snow rather than pass the night in one which has been deserted for only a single night if the doorway has not been tightly closed with a block of snow.

Within the walls, reeking with the exhalations of various putrid matters, the people breathe and rebreathe the air filled with poisonous gases; so fully one-half of the Eskimo die of pulmonary troubles. The other prevailing diseases are those causing devitalization of the blood, such as scurvy. Sores break out on the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles. The ravages of these diseases proceed at an astonishing rate, soon carrying off the afflicted person.

The means of relief usually employed are those which the shaman (or conjurer, as he is locally known) is able to effect by working on the imagination of the sick, who is in this condition easily influenced. The will power of both the patient and shaman is stretched to its utmost tension, and as faith with them, as with many others of fairer skins, often produces more of the relief than the ministrations of drugs or drafts, the cure is effected, or else the shaman, like the physician, has not the devil on his side.

The magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount of the patient's worldly wealth.

years begiu to show the result of their arduous life by the appearance of wrinkles, haggardness, and general breaking down, which, although it may progress slowly, is seldom recovered from.

Like the rest of the Innuit, the Koksoagmyut are usually peaceful and mild tempered. Among themselves af&ays are of rare occurrence. Jealousy arouses the worst passions, and the murder of the offender is generally the result. When a person becomes so bad in character that the community will no longer tolerate his presence he is forbidden to enter the huts, partake of food, or hold any intercourse with the rest Nevertheless, as long as he threatens no one's life, but little attention is paid to him. Should he be guilty of a murder, several men watch their opportunity to surprise him and put him to death, usually by stoning. The executioners make no concealment of their action, and are supported by public opinion in the community.

In the case of a premeditated murder, it is the duty of the next of kin to avenge the deed, though years may pass, while the murderer pursues his usual occupations undisturbed, before an opportunity occurs to the relative for taking him by surprise. Sometimes the victim is not overcome and turns upon the assailant and kills him. The man, now guilty of two murders, is suffered to live only at the pleasure of the people, who soon decree his death. That murder is not approved, either by the individual or the community, is well attested by the fact that the islaiid of Akpatok is now tabooed since the murder of part of the crew of a wrecked vessel, .who camped on that island. Such a terrible scene was too much, even for them ; and now not a soul visits that locality, lest the ghosts of the victims should appear and supplicate relief from the natives, who have not the proper offerings to make to appease them.

Aged i)eople who have.no relatives on whom they may depend for subsistence are often quietly put to death. When an old woman, for instance, becomes a burden to the community it is usual for her to be neglected until so weak from want of food that she will be unable to keep uj> with the people, who suddenly are seized with a desire to remove to a distant locality. If she regains their camp, well for her; otherwise, she struggles along until exhausted and soon perishes. Sometimes three or four of the males retrace their steps to recover a lost whip or a forgotten ammunition bag. They rarely go farther than where they find the helpless person, and if their track be followed it will be found that the corpse has stones piled around it and is bound with thongs.

An old woman at Fort Chimo had but one eye, and this was continually sore and very annoying to the people with whom she Uved. They proposed to strangle her to relieve her from her misery. The next morning the eye was much better and the proposed cure was posti)oned.

Gases of suicide are not rare, considering the few people of that

locality. Pitching tliemselvea from a cliff or producing strangulation are the usual methods. Sometimes a gun is used. Remorse and disappointed love are the only causes of suicide.

A man discovered, during a period of great scarcity or food, that while he went in quest of food his wife had secretly stored away a quantity of fish and ate of them during his absence only. Coming home unexpectedly, he caught her eating and she endeavored to secrete the remainder. He quietly went out of the snow hut and blocked up the entrance. She inquired why he did so. His reply was for her to come out and she would discover why it was done. His tone was not at all reassuring. She remained within the hut and perished from starvation, knowing she would be killed if she went out.

Instances are reported where, in times of great scarcity, families have been driven to cannibalism after eating their dogs and the clothing and other articles made of skins. Unlucky or disliked women are often driven from the camp, and such must journey until they find relief or perish by the wi^yside.

DI8KASK8.

The principal diseases from which these people suffer are pulmonary troubles, chiefly arising from their filthy manner of living in crowded huts, too ill ventilated to allow the escape of the odors emanating from their own bodies and from accumulations of slowly decomposing animal food. All openings must be closed as quickly as possible in order to economize the heat within, for when once chilled it is difficult to restore the house to the proper degret> of warmth. An Eskimo would always prefer to erect a new hut of snow rather than pass the night in one which has been deserted for only a single night if the doorway has not been tightly closed with a block of snow.

Within the walls, reeking with the exhalations of various putrid matters, the people breathe and rebreathe the air filled with poisonous gases; so fully one-half of the Eskimo die of pulmonary troubles. The other prevailing diseases are those causing devitalization of the blood, such as scurvy. Sores break out on the shoulders, elbows, knees, and ankles. The ravages of these diseases proceed at an astonishing rate, soon carrying off the afflicted person.

The means of relief usually employed are those which the shaman (or conjurer, as he is locally known) is able to effect by working on the imagination of the sick, who is in this condition easily infiuenced. The will power of both the patient and shaman is stretched to its utmost tension, and as faith with them, as with many others of fairer skins, often produces more of the relief than the ministrations of drugs or drafts, the cure is effected, or else the shaman, like the physician, has not the devil on his side.

The magnitude of the disease is generally measured by the amount of the patient^s worldly wealth.

188 THE HTDSON BAT ESKIMO.

afARRIAOK.

A woman is married as soon after puberty as a male comes along who has the re^rjnisite physical strength to force her to become his wife. Many of the females are taken before that period, and the resolt isthat few children are bom to snch unions and the children are generally weakly.

The ceremony between the conples is quite simple. The sanction of the parents is sometimes obtained by favor or else bought by making certain j^resents of skins, furs, and other valuables to the father and mother. The girl is sometimes asked for her consent, and, if unwilling, often enlists the sympathy of the mother, and the affair is postponed to a more favorable opportunity, or till the suitor becomes disgusted with her and takes somebody else.

If the parents are not living, the brothers or sisters must be favorable to the union. There is often so much intriguing in these matters that the exact truth can seldom be ascertained.

Where all obstacles are removed and only the girl refuses, it is not long before she disappears mysteriously to remain out for two or three nights with her best female friend, who thoroughly sympattiizes with her. They return, and before long she is abducted by her lover, and they remain away until she proves to be thoroughly subjected to his will. J knew of an instance where a girl was tied in a snow house for a yn-rioil of two weeks, and not allowed to go out. She finally submitte4l, and they returned with the other couple, who were less obstrep- erous, and doubtless went along to help their male friend and companion. The woman left her husband in the course of two or three wei'.ks, and when lie was asked about it he acknowledged that she had Xml]e<l neariy all the hair from his head and showed numerous bruises where she had struck liim. This siime woman was afterward tied to a sled U) make her a<.('ompany the man she subsequently chose as her husband, who wished lier to go to another part of the country. It was a lively time, some of the ohl women pushing her and persuading, the younger ones doing all in their jwwer to obstruct her. Children are often maUMl at an early age, and I have known of several instances where two friends, desirous of cementing their ties of fellowship, engage that their (children yet unborn shall be mated. In such instances the children are always recognized as married, and they are allowed by the parents to b(>. so (,al]ed. I knew a small boy of less than seven years who always addressed a girl of apparently a year older as his wife.

The marriageable age of the female varies greatly, although puberty takes pliice early. I have known of a child of fourteen having children. I heard of a halfbroeil girl, on the Labrador coast, who became a mother a few months after the age of thirteen.

Monogamy is generally the rule, but as there are so many counteracting influences it is seldom that a man keeps a wife for a number of years. Jealousy resulting trom a laxity of morals produces so much

disagreement that one or the other of the parties usually leave with little ceremony.

In rare instances, where there is a compatibility of temper and a disposition to continence, the pair remain together for life.

Many of the girls bear children before they are taken for wives, but as such incidents do not destroy the respectability of the mother the girl does not experience any difficulty in procuring a husband. Illegitimate children are usually taken care of by some aged woman, who devotes to it all her energies and affections.

The number of children born varies greatly, for, although these Eskimos are not a prolific race, a couple may occasionally claim parentage of as many as ten children. Two or three is the usual number, and many die in early childhood.

Wlien the family is prosi)erous the husband often takes a second wife, either with or without the approval of the first, who knows that her household duties will be lessened, but knows also that the favors of her husband will have to be divided with the second wife. The second wife is often the cause of the first wife's leaving, though sometimes she is sent away herself. Three or four wives are sometimes attained by a prosperous man, and one instance was known where the head of the family had no less than five wives. The occupation of a single snow house by two or three wives brings them into close intimacy and often produces quarreling. The man hears but little of it, as he is strong enough to settle their difficulties without ceremony, and in a manner better adapted to create respect for brute strength than affection for him.

The females outnumber the males, but the relationship among the Koksoagmyut is now so close that many of the males seek their wives from other localities. This, of course, connects distant people, and interchange of the natives of both sexes is common.

Separation of couples is effected in a simple manner. The one who so desires leaves with little ceremony, but is sometimes sought for and compelled to return. Wives are often taken for a period, and an exchange of wives is frequent, either party being often happy to be re- leased for a time, and returning without concern. There is so much intriguing and scandal-mongeriug among these people that a woman is often comi)elled by the sentiment of the comnuinity to relinquish her choline and join another who has bribed a conjurer to decide that until she comes to live with him a certain person will not be relieved from the evil spirit now tormenting him with disease.

The only way for the (;ouple against whom such a plot has been laid to escax>e separation is for them to flee to another locality and remain there until the person gets well or dies, whereupon the conjurer declares it was their cohabitation as man and wife which afflicted the invalid. A designing woman will often cause a man to cast off the legal wife to whom he is much attached and come and live with her. In such instances the former wife seldom resents the intrusion upon her affections and rights but occasionally gives the other a severe thrashing and an injunction to look to herself lest she be discarded also. The children of the cast-oflf woman are frequently taken by her and they go to live with her relatives as menials on whom devolve the labor of severest kinds, she being glad to obtain the refuse of the hovel to support her life in order that her children may be well taken care of.

Some wives are considered as very "unlucky" and a ^t trial are cast off to shift for themselves. A woman who has obtained the reputation of being unlucky for her husband is eschewed by all the men lest she work some charm on them.

In social relations the head of the family comes first, and the oldest son second, the other sons following according to respective ages.

The sons of the first wife, if there be more than one wife, take precedence over those of the second or third wife. It may be that a man ha« lost his first wife and takes another. The sons of these two are considered as those of one wife so far as tlieir relation to each other is concerned. When the father becomes superanuated or his sons are old enough to enable him to live without exertion, the management of affairs devolves on the eldest son, and to the second is delegated the second place. Each may be occupied in different affairs, but the elder alone chooses what he himself shall do.

If the father live to a great age, and some of the men certainly attain the age of more than 80 years, he may have great grandchildren about him, and these never fail to show respect for their ancestor.

All this family may dwell in a single tent, or in two or more tents. Where the leader directs, there they all repair, although each one who is at the head of a family may be left to employ himself as he may prefer. These sons, with their wives and children, form a community, which may have otlier persons added to it, namely, the i>ersons who are related to the wives of the sons. There may be but one community in a locality, and this is locally known to the white i>eople as the " gang^ of the head man.

Families whose members have decreased in number by death or by marriage may seek the companionship of one of these communities for protection. The new arrival at once a(;knowledges his dependence and is, in a manner, under the influence, if not control, of the leader of the community which he joins.

DREN.

A new born babe must not be washed until six or eight hours have elapsed. It is then placed to the breast and rarely gets any water to drink until old enough to help itself to it.

The child may be named while yet in utero. There being no distinctions for sex in names the appellation can scarcely be amiss. Sev- eral names may be acquired from the most trivial circumstances. Old

names may be discarded and new names substituted or certain names applied by certain people and not used by others.

Love for offspring is of the deepest and purest character. I have never seen a disrespectful Eskimo child. Mothers and fatners never inflict corporal punishment on their children, for these are early taught to obey, or rather they are quick to perceive that their parents are their protectors and to them they must go for assistance. Orphan girls are taken as nurses for small children, and the nurse so employed has seldom any trouble in controlling the child.

Among young children at play the greatest harmony prevails. An accident resulting in sufficient harm to cause tears obtains the sympathy of all, who strive to appease the injured child by offers of the great- est share of the game, the little fellow oft^u smiling with the prospective pleasure while the tears yet course down his begrimed cheeks. In a moment all is forgotten and joyous shouts sound merrily as the chubby youngsters of both sexes redouble their exertion in playing football or building toy houses in the newly fallen snow, where, on the bed of snow within the wall of the hut, the doll of ivory, wood or rags rolled into its semblance, plays the part of hostess whom they pretend to visit and with whom they converse.

Among the younger boys and girls, of 10 or 12, there is a great spirit of cheerful rivalry, to prove their ability to secure such food as they are able to capture. If they can procure enough to purchase some ammunition with which to kill ptarmigan they soon have a certain amount of credit. This enables them to provide some coveted luxury for their parents, who, of course, aid and encourage them to become successful hunters. Within the huts the girls display their skill by sew- ing fi*agments of cloth into garments for dolls or striving to patch their tattered clothes.

The older boys look with contempt ui>on these childish occupations and, to show their superiority, oft^n torment the younger ones until the father or mother compels them to desist. Pranks of various kinds are played upon each other and they often exhibit great cunning in their devices to annoy. These boys are able to accompany their elders on hunting trips and run ahead of the team of dogs attached to the sled-

IIURIAL CUSTOMS.

When a person dies the body is prepared by binding it with cords, the knees being drawn up and the heels placed against the body. The arms are tied down, and a covering of deerskin or sealskin is wrapped around the body and fastened. The nearest relatives on approach of death remove the invalid to the outside of the house, for if he should die within he must not be carried out of the door but through a hole cut in the side wall, and it must then be carefully closed to prevent the spirit of the person from returning. The body is exposed in the open air along the side of a large rock, or taken to the shore or hilltop, where

192 THE HTDfWJN BAY E8KIU0.

Htonoa of different nizea are piled around it to prevent the birds and aoiinais ffiym getting at it. (Bee Fig. 21.) It is considered a great offense If H dog l>o seen eatinf( the flesh from a, body. In case of a beloved child (lying it ih Hometimes taken with the people to whom it belonged if Chcy start for anotlier locality before decomposition has progressed too far.

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The dying iwrson resigns hiniiielf to fiito with great calmness. During illnivta, even though it l>o of most iminAiI churacter. complaint is scJdom heanl: itml m) gr«>at is fortitude thai the severest paroxj'smB of |Hun rari'ly pnHluce fven a movement of the muscles of the conntenituee.

The friends often exhibit an excessive amount of grief, but only in exceptional instunci\s is much weeping indulgetl in. The loss of a husband <>ft«u entails git>at hanlshiits on the wife and small children, who eke out a M-anty living by the aid of others who are scarvely able to ttiaintnia ihemsel>>s.

These |>eople have an idett of a fuinr*' state and N'lieve that death is nH'>iel)- tlto seiuualion of the s«hiI and the material lHtd,v. The spirits of the soul g*> either up to the sky. •■ kelnk.~ when they are i-alled Keluj|nt)>-ut, (M- down into the «>»rth. "Xuna," and an> called -Xnnani>ul. Thee«.> two classes of s]>irit.s can hold c^imniunication with each other.

The pla«v to which the s^wl jrhw dept'uds on the ix>ndmt of (he i*er- (««» iwt earth and «tstteei«ll^' on the ntanner of his dt^ih. Thttse who ha-» die»i by violence or st«r^~aiit>n and w,imen who die in childbirth art su)>|Ht$ml to(>>to the ivgitm aK>\t\ when-, though not abs«tlulet>- in

TURNBB. 1 RELIGION. 193

want, they still lack many of the luxuries enjoyed by the Nunamynt. All desire to go to the lower region and afterwards enjoy the pleasure of communicating with the living, which privilege is denied to those who go above.

If death result from natural causes the spirit is supposed to dwell on the earth after having undergone a probation of four years rest in the grave. During this time the grave may be visited and food offered and songs sung, and the offering, consisting of oil and flesh, with tobacco for smoking and chewing, is consumed by the living at the grave. Articles of clothing may also be deposited near the grave for the spirit to clothe itself after the garments have disappeared in the process of decay. It is customary to place such articles as may be deemed of immediate use for the departed soul in the grave at the time the body is interred. Ammunition, gun, kaiak and its appurtenances, with a shirt, gloves, knife, and a cup from which to drink are usually so deposited. The spirit of the dead man appropriates the spirits of these articles as soon as they decay. It is often said when an article becomes lost that so-and-so (mentioning his name), has taken it.

Some of the people prefer to expose their dead on the flat top of a high x>oint extending into the water. The remains of others are placed along the shore and covered with rocks, while still others are taken to the smooth ridges on which may nearly always be found a huge bowlder carried by glacial action and deposited there. Here generally on the south side the body is placed on the bare rocky ridge and stones are piled around and upon it.

While these people have but little fear of the dead man's bones they do not approve of their being disturbed by others. The Indians, however, are known to rifle the graves of Eskimo to obtain the guns, cloth- ing, etc., which the relatives of the deceased have placed there.

There are no such elaborate ceremonies pertaining to the festivals of the dead among the people of Hudson strait as obtain among the Eskimo of Alaska.

RSUGION.

Among these people there is no such person as chief; yet there is a recognized leader who is influenced by another, and this last is the conjurer or medicineman. These two persons determine among themselves what shall be done. It sometimes happens that slight differences of opinion on the proper course to pursue collectively will cause them to go in different directions to meet after a few months' separation, by which time all is forgotten and former relations are resumed.

All the affairs of life are supposed to be under the control of spirits, each of which rules over a certain element, and all of which are under the direction of a greater spirit. Each person is supposed to be attended by a special guardian who is malignant in character, ever ready to seize upon the least occasion to work harm upon the individual whom 11 ETH 13

it accompanies. As this is au evil spirit its good offices and assistance can be obtained by propitiation only. The person strives to keep the good will of the evil spirit by offerings of food, water, and clothing.

The spirit is often in a material form in the shape of a doll, carried somewhere about the person. If it is wanted to insure success in the chase, it is carried in the bag containing the ammunition.

When an individual fails to overcome the obstacles in his path the misfortune is attributed to the evil wrought by his attending spirit, whose good will must be invoked. If the spirit prove stubborn and reluctant to grant the needed assistance the person sometimes becomes angry with it and inflicts a serious chastisement upon it, dei)rives it of food, or strips it of its garments, until after a time it proves less refractory and yields obedience to its master. It often happens that the person is unable to control the influence of the evil-disposed spirit and the only way is to give it to some person without his knowledge. The latter becomes immediately under the control of the spirit, and the former, released from its balefrd effects, is able successfully to prosecute the affairs of life. In the course of time the person generally re- lents and takes back the spirit he gave to another. The person on whom the spirit has been imposed should know nothing of it lest he should refuse to accept it. It is often given in the form of a bundle of clothing. It is supposed that if in hunting somebody merely takes the bag to hang it up the influence will pass to him. The spirit is sup- X)osed to be able to exert its influence only when carried by some object having life. Hence th^ person may cast it away for a time, and during that ])eriod it remains inert.

Besides this class of spirits, there are the spirits of the sea, the land, the sky (for be it understood that the Eskimo know nothing of the air), the winds, the clouds, and everything in nature. Every cove of the seashore, every point, island, and prominent rock has its guardian spirit. All are of the malignant type and to be propitiated only by acceptable offerings from persons who desire to visit the locality where it is supposed to reside. Of course some of the spirits are more powerful than others, and these are more to be dreaded than those able to inflict less harm.

These minor spirits are under the control of the great spirit, whose name is "Tung ak.^ This one great spirit is more powerful than all the rest besides. The lesser spirits are immediately under his control and ever reaily to obey his command. The shaman (or conjurer) alone is supiK)sed to be able to deal with the Tung ak. While the shaman does not profess to be superior to the Tung ak, he is able to enlist his assistance and thus be able to control all the undertakings his profession may call for.

This Tung ak is nothing more or less than death, which ever seeks to torment and harass the lives of people that their spirits may go to dwell with him.

TUBNBB.]

RELIGION. 195

A legend related of the origin of the Tung ak is as follows: A father had a sou and daughter whom he loved very much. The children fell ill and at last died, although the father did all in his power to alleviate their sufferings, showing his kindness and attentions to the last moment. At their death the &ther became changed to a vicious spirit, roaming the world to destroy any person whom he might meet, determined that, as his dear children died, none others should live.

Tung ak visits people of all ages, constantly placing obstacles in their pathway to prevent the accomplishment of their desires, and provoking them beyond endurance so as to cause them to become ill and die and go to live with him. Tung ak no longer knows his own children and imagines all persons that he meets to be his children. Famine, disease, and death aie sent abroad to search for these lost children.

People at last began to devise some means of thwarting the designs of Tung ak and disrovered that a period of fasting and abstinence from contiict with other people endowed a i)erson with supernatural powers and enabled him to learn the secrets of Tung ak. This is accomplished by repairing to some lonely spot, where foi* a greater or less period the hermit abstains from food or water until the imagination is so worked upon that he believes himself imbued with the power to heal the sick and control all the destinies of life. Tung ak is supposed to stand near and reveal these things while the person is under- going the test. When the person sees the evil one ready to seize upon him if he fails in the self-imposed tajsk to become an "Angekok" or great one, he is much frightened and beseeches the terrible visitor to Spare his life and give him the power to relieve his people from misfortune. Tung ak then takes pity on him, and imparts to him the secret of preserving life, or driving out the evil which causes death.

This is still the process by which the would-be shaman fits himself for his sui)ematural duties.

The newly fledged angekok returns to his people and relates what he has seen and what he has done. Tlie listeners are awed by the recitals of the sufferings and ordeal, and he is now ready to accomplish his mission. When his services are required he is crafty enough to demand sufficient compensation, and frankly states that the greater the pay the greater the good bestowed. A native racked with pain will gladly part with all of his worldly possessions in order to be restored to health.

The shaman is blindfolded, or else has a covering thrown over his head to prevent his countenance from being seen during the incantation. The patient lies on the ground before him and when the shaman is worked up to the proper state of frenzy he prostrates himself ujwn the afflicted person and begins to chase the evil from its seat. The patient often receives blows and jerks sufficiently hard to dislocate the joints. As the spell progresses the shaman utters the most hideous noises,

shonting here and there as the evil flees to another jiortion of the body, seeking a retreat from which the shaman shall be unable to dislodge it. After a time victory is declared; the operator claims to have the disease under his control, and although it should escape and make itself again felt in the patient-, the shaman continues until the person either gets well or dies. If the former, the reputation of the shaman is increased proportionally to the payment bestowed by the afflicted one. If he dies, however, the conjurer simply refers his failure to the interference of something which was beyond his control. This may have been the influence of anything the shaman may at the moment think of, such as a sudden appearance in the changing auroras, a fall of snow, or a dog knocking down something outside of the house. If the people deny that the dog did the act, the shaman replies that the dog was the instrument in the hands of a spirit which escax)ed him. Any little incident is sufficient to thwart the success of his manipulations. If any x)erson be the subject of the shaman's displeasure he or she must undergo some sort of punishment or do an act of penance tor the interference. It is not unusual to see a person with the harness of a dog on his back. This is worn to relieve him or somebody else of a spell of the evil spirit. The tail of a living dog is often cut from its body in order that the fresh blood may be cast ujion the ground to be seen by the spirit who has caused the harm, and thus he may be appeased. Numerous mutilations are inflicted upon animals at the com- mand of the conjurer, who must be consulted on nearly all the important undertakings of life in order that he may manage the spirits which will insure success.

The implicit belief in these personages is wonderful. Almost every person who can do anything not fully understood by others has more or less reputation as a shaman.

Some men, by observation, become skilled in weather lore, and get a great reputation for supernatural knowledge of the future weather. Others again are famous for suggesting charms to insure success in hunting, and, in fact, the occasions for consulting the conjurer are practically innumerable. One special qualification of a good shaman is the ability to attract large numbers of deer or other game into the region where he and his Mends are hunting.

Some of these shamans are superior hunters and, as their experience teaches them the habits of the deer, they know at any season exactly where the animals are and can anticipate their future movements, influenced greatly by the weather. Thus the i)rophet is able to estimate the proximity or remoteness of the various herds of stragglers from the main body of deer which were in the locality during the preceding fall months. These hunters have not only a local reputation but Bice known as far as the people have any means of communication.

In order to cause the deer to move toward the locality where they may be desired the shaman will erect, on a pole placed in a favorable

THE TALISMANS.

position, an image of some fhmoua tiiinter and conjurer. The image will represent the power of the jierson an conjurer and the varioua paraphernalia attached to the image ansiat in controlling the movements of the animalt).

I obtained one of these objects at Fort Ohinio. (Fig. 22.) It is quite elaborate and requires a detailed description. It is intended to repre-

FlQ. 23. Majtlc doll.

sent a celebrate<l coujurer living on thoeiistern shore of Hudson bay. He occasionally viaiU'd Fort Chiuio where bis reputation as a hunter had preceded tiini. His nanir is Sii'jm.

lie is dressed iu a complete suit of the woolen stuff called "■ etrouds" at Fort CUiino, trimmed with Iiliick and with fancy tartan gartering. In

the belt of )>olar-bear akin (kak-caDg'-uat) (Fig. 23) are hang atrings of co]ore<l beads aud varioiui amaletH. TbeRe are, first, a wooden doll [Fig. 24) (Inug'-n'ak, a little man) liung to the l>elt so that lie faces outward and is alwayn on the alert; then, two bits of wood (agdwak) (Pig. 35] to which hang strauda of beads and lead drops; next, a string of three bullets (Fig. 2C) to symbolize the readiness of the banter when game approa^ihes; ami, last, a semicircular piece of wood omameuted with strings of beads (Fig. 27).

This laMt is railed the tu-a'-vi-tok, or haateuer. The hunter holds it in hiH band when he sitrlitM the game, aud the tighter he grasps it the

Fl'i.ai. Kelt.

laglo dnll.

faster ho is supposed to get over the ground. It is snpposed that by the use of this one may be able to travel faster than the wind aud not even tonch the eiirth oyit which he passes witli such incredible speed that be overtakes the deer in a moment. The entire affair, as it hung on the poll', was called tung wa'gii e'nog ang', or a materialization of a Tung ak.

Tliis objectbuiig there for several days until I thought it had served its ]mriM>HV aud could now aftbitl to change ownership. Tlie local imu-

"I

THE TALISUANB.

jnrer was thus compelled to iuvoke the assistance of aDother. I fun liappy to add tltat the deer did come, and in thousands, actually mnniag among the houses of the station.

The shaman of the community possesses great iufluence over its members. He very flMjqaently decides the coarse to be pursued by man and wife iu their relations with each other, and, conspiring with some evil old woman who loves to nhow preference for a young man, he often decrees that husband or wife shall be cast off.

If the person become ill the wife is often accused of working Home charm on her husband in order that she may enjoy the favors of iiiiother.

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7io. as. Tilinnui.

A woman wlioine husband bad recently died was espoused by another who soon after became violently ill. She nursed him with the greatest asHidaity until lie eonvalew^e«l. At this period his mother, with tlie advice of some old hags, decreed that she had been the solo causi^ of her hasband'sillEieSH and nmst leave the tent. Her tilings were pitched out and she vas compelled to journey iu ({uest of her relatives.

Another illustration came under my notice.

A widow was taken to wife; by a Koksoak Eskimo. He was soon taken violently ill and she was a<;cused by the shaman of being the cause of it, as the spirit of her deceased husband was jealous. Unless she were vsmt off the Koksoak man would never recover. It was then

also found tliat unless tlie wife of another man should desert him and become the wife of a man who already had two of tliis woman's Bistera as wives the sick man would die. The woman and her husband escaped divorce by fleeing from the camp.

The shaman may do about as he pleases with the marriage ties, which oftener consist of sealskin thongs than respect and love. Many old hags have acquired great reputations for being able to iuterptet dreams. An instance of dream interpretation, which also illustrates how a person may acquire a new name, came under my observation. A woman, sitting alone, heard a noise like the rapping of someone at the door desiring admittance. She said, " Come in." No one appeared, and she inquired of the girl who acted as nurse for her child if anyone had knocked at the door. A negative answer was given. Further qnestioning of a wliite man, who was asleep near by, revealed that he had mau«<nu. that uo man had died within the

place and so hi» spirit could not be seeking admittance. She went to an old woman and related the affair, and was informed that it was the rapping of her brother, who had died suddenly some two years before. She must go home and prepare a cup of tea, with a slice of bread, and give it to the nurse, as her brother, Nakvak (the one who dieil) was hungry and wanted food. She esitecially enjoined upon the woman that the girl must now be known as Nakvak (meaning " found'*) and that through her the dead would procure the food wbirh, although it subserves a good purix>Be in nourishing the living, tendq, by its accompanying spirit, to allay the pangs of hunger in the dead.

As I have already said, everything in the world is believed to have its attendant spirit. The spirits of the lower animals are like those of men, but of an inferior order. As these Bpiritu, of course, can not be destroyed by killing the animals, the Eskimo believe that no amount of slaughter can realy decrease the numbers of the game.

A great spirit controls the reindeer. He dwells in a huge cavern near the end of Cape Chidley. He obtains and controls the spirit of every deer which is slain or dies, and it depends on his goo<l will whether the i»eople shall obtain future supplies. The form of the spirit is that of a huge white bear. The shaman has the power to prevail uptm the spirit to send the deer to the people who are represented as suffering

AUULETS.

for vraDt of food. The »pirit is informed tliat the people have in no way offended him, as the shaman, as a mediator between the spirit and the people, has taken great care that the past food was all eaten and that last spring, when the female deer were retamiug to him to be delivered of their young, none of the young {or ftetal) deer were devoured by the dogs. After much incantation the shaman announces that tlie spirit condescends to anpply the people with spirits of the deer in a material form and that soon an abundance will be in the land. He enjoins upon the people to elay and thus obtain the approval of the spirit, which loves to see good people enjoy an abnndauce, knowing that so long as the people refrain from feeding their dogs with the unborn young, the spirits of the deer will in time return again to his guardianship.

Oertaiu parts of the first deer killed must be eaten raw, others disoarded, and others must t>e eaten cooked. The dogs must not be al- lowed to taste of the flesh, and not until an abundance has been obtained mast they be allowed to gnaw at the leg bones, lest the gnardian spirit of the deer be offendetl and refuse to send further supplies. If by some misfortune the dogs get at the meat, a piece of the offending dog's tail ia cut off or his ear is cropi>ed to allow a flow of blood.

Ceremonies of some kind attend the capture of the flrst slain animal of all the more important kinds. I unfortunately had no opportunity of witnessing many of these ceremonies.

As a natural consequence of the superstitious beliefs that I have described, the use of amulets is universal. Some charms are worn to ward off the attacks of evil-disposed spirits. Other charms are worn as remembrances of deceased relatives. These have the form of a heatlless doll depending from some portion of the garment woru on the up- per part of the body.

As many of their personal names are derived from natural objects, it is usual for the person to wear a little imuge of the object for which he is named or a portion of it; for example, awing of the bird, or a bit of the animal's skin. This is Bupi>OBed to gratify the spirit of the object. Strange or curious objects never before seen are sometimes (wnsidered to bring success to the finder

Two articles selected from my collection will illustrate different forms of amulets. The flrst, Ko. 3018, is a little wooden model of a kaiak. The other (3090, Fig. 28) was worn on the hen-k of a woman's coat. It is a small block of wood carved into four human headH. These heiids represent four famous conjurers noted for their skill in driving away diseases. The woman, who came &om the eastern shore of Hudson's bay, was tnmbled with rheumatism an<l wore this charm frttm time to time as she felt the twinges of pain. She assured me that the pain

202 THE HUDSON BAY ESiaMO.

always disappeared in a few hours when she wore it. It was with the greatest difficulty that I persuaded her to part with it. She was, however, about to return home, and could get another there.

OUTDOOR LIFE.

The Eskimo acquire an extended knowledge of the country by early iUKiompanying their parents on hunting trips, and as they have to rely upon memory alone, they must be observant and carefully mark the surroundings from all the views afforded. The faculty of memory is thus cultivated to an astonishing degree, and seldom fails, even in the most severe weather, to insure safety for the individual. I knew a native stick his ramrod in the ground among scattered stalks of grass which attained the height of the rod, yet after several hours he found the spot again without the least hesitation. Every rise of land, every curve of a stream, every cove in the seashore, has a name descriptive of something connected with it, and these names are known to all who have occasion to visit the place. Though the aspect of the land is entirely changed by the mantle of snow which covers all the smaller objects, a hunter will go straight to the place where the carcass of a single deer was cached many months before on the open beach. The Eskimo are faithful guides, and when confidence is shown to be reposed in them they take a pride in leading the party by the best route. In traveling by night they use the north star for the guide. Experience teaches them to foretell the weather, and some reliance may be placed on their predictions.

Their knowledge of the seasons is also wonderful. The year begins when the sun haB reached its lowest point, that is, at the winter solstice, and summer begins with the suuimer solstice. They recognize the arrival of the solstices by the bearing of the sun with reference to certain fixed landmarks.

The seasons have distinctive names, and these are again subdivided into a great number, of which there are more during the warmer weather than during the winter. The reason for this is obvious: so many changes are going on during the summer and so few during the winter. The principal events aie the return of the sun, always a signal of joy to the people; the lengthening of the day; the warm weather in March when the sun has attained sufficient height to make his rays less slanting and thus be more fervent; the melting of the snow; the breaking up of the ice; the open water; the time of birth of various seals; the advent of exotic birds; the nesting of gulls, eiders, and other native birds; the arrival of white whales and the whaling season; salmon fishing; the ripening of salmonberries and other species of edibles; the time of reindeer crossing the river; the trapping of fur-bearing animals and hunting on land and water for food. Ea(.h of these ]>eriods has a special name applied to it, although several may overlap each other. The ap^iearance of mosquitoes, sand-

OUTDOOR LIFE. 203

flies^ and horseflies are marked by dates anticix»ted with considerable apprehension of annoyance.

In order to sketch the annual routine of life, I will begin with the breaking up of the ice in spring. The Koksoak river breaks its ice about the last of May. This period, however, may vary as much as ten days earlier and twenty days later than the date specified. The ice in Ungava bay, into which that river flows, must be free from the greater portion of the shore ice before the river ice can push its way out to sea. The winds alone influence the bay ice, and the character' of the weather toward the head waters of the river determines its time of breaking.

The Eskimo has naturally a keen perception of the signs in the sky and is often able to predict with certainty the effects of the preceding weather. When the season has sufftciently advanced all the belongings of each family are put together and transported down the river on sleds to where the ice has not yet gone from the mouth of the river. It is very seldom that the river ice extends down so far. To the edge of the ice the tent and dogs, with the umiak, kaiak, and other personal property, are taken and then stored on shore until the outside ice is free.

The men wander along the beach or inland hunting for reindeer, ptarmigan, hares, and other land game. The edge of the water is searched for waterfowl of various kinds which appear earliest. Some venturesome seals appear. In the course of a few days the ice in the river breaks up and the shore ice of the bay is free; and if there is a favorable wind it soon permits the umiak to be put into the water, where, by easy stages, depending on the weather, the quantity of floating ice, and the food supply, the hunters creep alongshore to the object- ive point, be it either east or west of the Koksoak. Sometimes the party divide, some going in one direction and others in another.

The men seek tor seals, hunting in the kaiak, the women and children searching the islets and coves for anything edible. As soon as the season arrives for the various gulls, eiders, and other sea birds to nest the women and children are in high glee. Every spot is carefully examined, and every accessible nest of a bird is robbed of its contents. By the 25th of June the people have exhausted the supply of eggs from the last situations visited and now think of returning, as the birds have again deposited eggs and the seals are becoming scarcer.

The Eskimo arrange to assist the company to drive white whales when the season arrives. This is as soon as they appear in the river at a sufficient distance up to warrant that the measures pursued will not drive them out of the fresh water, for if they left they would not soon return. The date usually fixed upon is about the 12th of July. The natives are summoned, and a large sailboat or the small steam launch is sent along the coast to the place where the people were expected to arrive the 5th of the month. The natives are brought to the

whaling station, where they encamp, to await the setting of the nets forming the sides of the inclosnre into which the whales are to be driven.

The natives sx)ear the whales in the x>onnd, drag them ashore^ skin them, and help take the oil and skins to the post, some eight miles farther up the river.

The same natives who engaged in the whaling are employed to attend the nets for salmon, which arrive at variable dates from the 25th of July to the 1st of September. Two or more adult male Eskimo, with their relatives, occupy a certain locality, generally known by the name of the person in charge of that season's work. The place is occupied until the runs of the fish are over, when it is time for the natives to be up the river to spear reindeer which cross the river.

This hunting lasts until the deer have begun to rut and the males have lost the fat from the small of the back. The season is now so far advanced that the ice is already forming along the shore, and unless the hunter intends to remain in that locality he would better begin to descend the river to a place nearer the sea. The river may freeze in a single uight and the umiak be unable to withstand the constant strain of the sharpedged cakes of floating ice.

The head of the family decides where the winter is to be passed and moves thither with his party at once. Here her has a few weeks of rest from the season's labors, or spends the time constructing a sled for the winter journeys he may have in view. The snow has. now fallen so that a snow honse may be constructed and winter quarters taken up. A number of steel traps are procured to be set for foxes and other frir-bearing animals. The ptarmigans arrive in large flocks and are eagerly hunted for their flesh and feathers. The birds are either consumed for food or sold to the company, which pays 6^ cents for four, and purchases the body feathers of the birds at the rate of 4 i>ounds of the feathers for 25 cents.

The Eskimo soon consume the amount of deer meat they brought with them on their return and subsist on the flesh of the ptarmigan until the ice is firm enough to allow the sleds to be used to transport to the present camp meat of animals slain in the fall.

The traps are visited and the furs are sold to the company in exchange for flour, tea, sugar, molasses, biscuit, clothing, and ammuni- tion. Hunting excursions are made to various localities for stray bands of deer that have become separated from the larger herds.

The white men employes of the company have been engaged in cutting wood for the next year's friel, and the Eskimo with their dog teams are hired to haul it to the bank, where it may be floated down in rafts when the river opens.

Thus passes the year in the life of the Eskimo of the immediate vicinity of Fort Cliimo. Some of the Koksoagmyut do not engage in these occupations. Some go to another locality to live by themselves; others do not work or hunt, because it is not their nature to do so.

TURKEB.1 OUTDOOR LIFE. 205

III all undertakings for themselves they deliberate long, with much hesitation and apparent reluctance, before they decide upon the line of action. They consult each other and weigh the advantages of this over that locality for game, and speculate on whether they will be afflicted with illness of themselves or family. When the resolution is finally made to journey to a certain place, only the most serious obstacles can thwart their purpose.

At all seasons of the year the women have their allotted duties, which they pertbrm without hesitation. They bring the wood and the water, and the food from the field, if it is not too distant, in which case the men go after it with the dog teams. The women also fashion the skins into clothing and other articles, and do the cooking. After a hunt of several days' duration the husband's appearance is anxiously awaited, as is indicated by the family scanning the direction whence he is expected. The load is taken from the sled or boat and the incidents of the chase recited to the ever ready listeners.

In the early spring the won^en are busily engaged in making boots for summer wear. Tlie skins of the seals have been prepared the fall before and stored away until wanted. The method of tanning the skins is the same for each species, differing only in its size and weight.

Certain large vessels made of wood or metal, chiefly the latter, as they are easily procured f^om the traders, are used to hold a liquid, which is from time to time added to. When a sufficient amount is collected it is allowed to ferment. During the interval the skin of the seal is cleansed from fat and flesh. The hair has been removed by shaving it off or by pulling it out. The skin is then dressed with an instrument designed for that purpose, made of ivory, deerhom, stone, or even a piece of tin set in the end of a stout stick several inches long. The skin is held in the hand and the chisel-shaped implement is repeatedly pushed from the person and against a portion of the skin until that part becromes pliable and soft enough to work. It is further softened by rubbing between the hands with a motion similar to that of the washerwoman rubbing clothing of the wash. Any portion of the skin which will not readily yield to this manipulation is chewed with the front teeth until it is reduced to the required pliability. After this operation has been completed the skin is soaked in the liquid, which has now rii)ened to a sufficient degree to be effective. In this it is laid for a period lasting from several hours to two or three days. The skin is now taken out and dried. The subsequent oi)eration of softening is similar to that just describe<l, and is final. It is now ready to be cut into the required shape for the various articles for which it is intended. If it is designed for boots for a man, the measure of the height of the leg is taken. The length and width of the sole is measured by the hand, stretching so far and then bending down the long or middle finger until the length is measure<l. The width of one, two, or more fingers is sometimes used in addition to the span. The

206 THE HUDSON KAY ESKIMO.

length is thus marked and the skin folded over so as to have it doubled. The knife used in cutting is shaped like the round knife used by the harness-maker or shoemaker.

There is in our collection a wooden model of this form of knife (No. 3022), which nowadays always has a blade of metal. Formerly slate, flint, or ivory was used for these blades.

The instrument is always pushed by the person using it. The eye alone guides the knife, except on work for a white man, and then greater care is exercised and marks employed indicating t^e required size. This round knife is called 61o.

Another important duty of the women is taking care of the family boots. When a pair of boots has been worn for some time, during a few hours in warm weather they absorb moisture and become nearly half an inch thick on the soles. When taken off they must be turned inside out and dried, then chewed and scraped by some old woman, who is only too glad to have the work for the two or three biscuit she may receive as pay. Any leak or hole is stitched, and when the sole has holes worn through it, it is patched by sewing a piece on the under side. The thread used in sewing the boots is selected from the best strips of sinew fix)m the reindeer or seal.

Some women excel in boot-making, and at some seasons do nothing but make boots, while the others in return prepare the other garments- When the time comes in spring for making sealskin clothes, the women must not sew on any piece of deerskin which has not yet been sewed, lest the seals take offense and desert the locality which has been selected for the spring seal hunt, to which all the people look forward with longing, that they may obtain a supply of food different from that which they have had during the long winter months. As there can be no harm in killing a deer at this season, the flesh may be used, but the skin must be cast away.

As before stated, the entire family accompany the exi>editions; and as the females are often the more numerous i)ortion of the population, they row the umiak at their leisure, now and then stopping to have a few hours' run on shore and again embarking. While thus journeying they are at times a sleepy crowd, until something ahead attracts attention ; then all become animated, pursuing the object, if it be a halffledged bird, until it is captured. Oreat amusement is thus afforded for the time, after which they relapse until some excitement again arouses them firom their apparent lethargy. At the camp the men go in quest of larger game, leaving the women and children, who search the shore for any living creature they may find, destroying all that oomes in their way. Smoking, eating, and sleeping occupy them until they arrive at a locality where food is abundant. There they earnestly strive to slay all that comes within reach, and thus often obtain much more than they rei|uire, and the remainder is left to putrefy on the rocks. The women do the skinning of the seals and binls obtained on

TlTRNBRl TATTOOING. 207

this trip. The skins of birds are removed in a peculiar manner. The wings are cut off at the body, and through the incision all the flesh and bones are taken out. The skin is then turned inside out. The grease is removed by scraping and chewing. The skin is dried and preserved for wear on the feet or for the purpose of cleansing the hands, which have become soiled with blood or other pffal in skinning large game.

When the season arrives for hunting the reindeer for their skins, with which to make clothing for winter, the women help to prepare the flesh and bring the wood and water for the camp, while the men are ever on the alert for the herds of deer on the land or crossing the water. The women hang the skins over poles until the greater i)ortion of the animal matter is dry, when they roll them up and store them away until the party is ready to return to the permanent camp for the winter. Here the skins collected are carefully examined and suitable ones selected for winter garments.

The skins are moistened with water and the adherent fleshy particles are removed with a knife. They are then roughly scraped and again wetted, this time with urine, wliich is supposed to render them more pliable. The operation is practically the same as that of tanning sealskins. The hair is, of course, left on the skin. When the skins are finally dry ana worked to the required pliability, they are cut into shape for the various articles of apparel. The thread used in sewing is simply a strip of sinew of the proper size. The fibers are separated by splitting off a sufficient amount, and with the finger nail the strip is freed from all knots or smaller strands which would prevent drawing through the needle holes. The thread for this purpose is never twisted or plaited. The needle is one procured from the trader. Small bone needles, imitations of tliese, are sometimes used. In former years the bone needle was the only means of carrying the thread, but this has now, except in the rarest instances, been entirely superseded by one of metal.

The thimble is simply a piece of stifi' sealskin sewed into a ring half an inch wide to slip on the first finger, and has the same name as that member. In sewing of all kinds the needle is i)ointed toward the operator. The knife used in cutting skins is the same as that previously described. Scissors are not adapted to cutting a skin which retains the fur. So far as my observations goes, scissors are used only for cutting textile fabrics procured from the store.

In the use of a knife women acquire a wonderous dexterity, guiding it to the desired curve with much skill, or using the heel of the blade to remove strips which may need trimming off.

TATTOOING.

In former years the women were fancifully tattooed with curved lines and rows of dots on the face, neck, and arms, and on the legs up to mid-thigh. This custom, however, fell into disuse because some

dhanuin declared that a prerailiiig mLsfortiue was the result of the tattooing. At present the tattooing is confined to a few single dots on the body and face. When a girl arrives at puberty she is taken to a secluded locality by some old woman versed in the art and stripped of her clothing. A small quantity of half-charred lamp wick of moss is mixed with oil from the lamp. A needle is used to prick the skin, and the pasty substance is smeared over tiie wound. The blood mixes with it, and in a day or two a dark-bluish spot alone is left. The operation continues four days. When the girl returns to the tent it is known that she has begun to menstruate. A menstruating woman must not wear the lower garments she does at other times. The hind flap of her coat must be turned up and stitehed to the back of the garment. Her right hand must be half-gloved, or, in other words, the first two joints of each finger of that hand must be uncovered. The left hand also remains uncovered. She must not touch certain skins and food which at that particular season are in use.

CLOTHlSii.

Like most Elskimo, the Koksoagmynt are clothed almost entirely in the skins ot animals, though the men now wear breeches of moleskin, duck, jeans, or denim procured frt>m the trading store. Beindeer- skiu is the favorite material for clothing, though skins of the diflemut seals are also used. The usual garments are a hooded frx>ck, of different shafies for the sexes, with breeches and boots. The latter are of various shajies for different weather, and there are many patterns of mittens. Rain frocks of seal entrail are also worn over the furs in stonny weather. Some of the people are very tidy and keep their ckithing in a resjiectable condition. Others are careless and oft^fU present a m^^st filthy sight. The aged and orphans, unless the latter t>e adopted by some well-to-do person, must often be content with tlie csast'OfT apparel of their more fortunate fellow-beings.

Tlie hair of the skins wears off in those places most liable to be in contsu'X with other objects. The elbows, wrists, and knees often are without a vestige of hair on the clothing. The skin wears through and then is patehed with any kind of a piece, which often presents a ludicnius apf>earance.

The young Iniys and girls are dressed alike, and the females do not wear the garments of the adults until they arrive at puberty. It is a ludicnms sight to witness some of the little ones scarcely able to walk dressed in heavy deerskin clothing, which makes them appear as thick as they are tall. They exhibit about the same amount of pnde of their new suits as the civilizeil boy does. They are now able to go out into the severest weather, and seem to delight in rolling around in the snow.

Infants at the breast, so small as to l>e carried in the mother's hood, are often dressed in skins of the reindeer fawns. The garment

CLOTHraO.

for these is a kind of " conibioatioo,'* the troosera aud body sewed together and cut dovn the back to suable the infant to get tliem on. A cap of calico or other cloth and a pair of nkin stockings completes the soit.

Both nif n and women wear, as an additional protection for their feet in cold weather, a pair or two of short stockings, locally known as "dufBes," ftom the name of the material of which thef are made. These "duffles" are cut into the form of a slipper aud incase the stockings of the feet. Over these are worn the moccasins, made of tanned and smoked deerskin. The Eskimo women are not adepts in making moccasins; a few only can form a well-fitting pair. Tliey often employ the Itidiau women to make them, aud, in return, give a pair of sealskin boots, which the Indian is nuable to make, but highly prizes for summer wear in the swamps.

The Koksoagmyut do not wear caps, the hood of the frocks being the only head covering. There is, however, in my collection a cap obtained from one of the so-called "Northerners," who came to Fort Chimo to trade. This cap (Ho. 3242, Fig. 29) was evidently copied from some white man's cap. The front and crown of the cap are made of guillemot aud sea-pigeou skins, aud the sealskin neckpiece also is lined with these skins, so that when it is turned up the whole cap seems to be made of bird skins.

We may now proceed to the description of the difl'ereut garments in de- tAil.

The coat worn by the men and boys, and by the girls until they arrive at womanhood, has the form of a loose sbirt, seldom reaching more than \i ov 3 inches below the hii>s, and ot^n biirely covering the hips. The neck bole is large enough to admit the head into tlie hood, which maybe throwu back or worn over the head in place of a cap.

The Inuuit of the southern shore of the western end of Hudson Strait often cut the coat o[>en in front as far up as the breast (Figs. 30 and 31, No. 3224). The favorite material for these ooate is the skin of the reindeer, tliree good-sized skins being required to make a fuU sized coat for a man. Coats made of light summer skins are used as uuderclothiug in winter and for the only body clothing iu summer. The skin of the harp seal (Phwagnenlandica) is also used for coats, but only ~ when the supply of reindeerHkin runs short, or when a man can afford to have an extra coat to wear in wet weathei-. It is not a very good 11 ETH 14

9.29. Bnkimo binlRklD <

210 THE HUDSON BAT ESKIMO.

material for clothing, or the Hkjn is roughly tanued. and no unonut of working will render it more than moderately pliable. Figs. 3:! and 33 rei*KW!Dt M tiealittdn coat TbeM tioatu are oft«n triuinied roond the edgeit with fringett of deentkin '2 or 3 iuelies wide, or little pendaut« of ivory.

The enll<K;tiiiii umtiuiiH uluvoii of th<Me cuattt, Nos. 3221,3498-3500, and .'t&'iS o( deerHkiii, and Una. 3:J28, 3533-3537 of sealakin.

'I'hf [HHiuliiir xltiipo of tliti wuiuaii'ti (;oat in beHt understood by rvfermicti U) Ihu Accompuiiyiiig flguruK (Figs. 34, 35, 3G, 37 aud 38). The tiiioniiouH liofid in lined for varrying the iufaiit. When uittiag, the futnalo itHiiiilly ditiposcH the front flap so that it will lie spread himh the thighH, or olmi pushes it betwoeu her legH, while the hind flap is either thrown aaide or sat upon.

It is not uiiuaual for the women to display uoiisiderftble taste in ornamenting their garnients, using the steel-gray jielt of the hurp »eal Ut (^tntrast with the bluek of the harbur seal, and so on. The edges of the hwHl and sluuveij are tVeiiueiitly trimmed witli skin from a dark

■naiKR.) CLOTHING. 211

ralored yoang dog, or a strip of {lolHrbear Hkin, whose loiigwbite faaire abed the riun better thau thosu of any other mammal.

It is not rare to Uml loojm of sinew or uf tiealskiii attached to the breast or liack of a woman's garments. The^e are for tying Hmall iirticles, such as a needle vaao or a snufi'-bag, to the clothiug for convenience and to iircvent loss.

A i>ecnliar style of ornamentation is Hhowu in Fig. .'}0 and 40, No. 3005, a womait's coat from FortOhimo. The front of the skirt ia fringed

with little leail drutts, bvau-8)ia[>e‹l in tlio upper row and i›e:ir-8haped in the lower, and pierced so that tliey can be sewed on. These lead drops are ftirnished by the tnider at the price of about a cent and a Inilf each, in trade. Tlie trinnning of this froi^k cost, therefore, about $4. The four objei^ts dangling from the front of the frock lu'C pewter Hi>oon-l>o«i8. Across the breast is a fringe of short strings of dilfereut colored betuls, red, blaek, yellow, white, and blue. Jiugliug ornamentfi are much prized.

The tin tags from plug tobacco are eagerly songht for, perforated Hod attju-lied in pendant Htrands 3 or 4 incheti long to walakin strips »ud thuH serve the place of beads. I naw one woman who certainly bad not less than a thousand of these tags jingling as she walked. I have also seen coins of various countries attached to the arms and dress. One coin was Brazilian, another Spanish, and several were

Fro. 32. Enkioi

Kngliuh. Coins of the provinces were quite numerous. These were all doubtless obtaiiietl I'rom the sitilors who annually visit the place, in exchange for little trinkets prepared by the meu and women.

The collection contains Ave of these coats, Nos. 3005, 3225-3;i27 of deerskin, and 3504 of sejilskiu. The last is a very elaborabt garment, made of handscmiely eontniated pieces of the skin of two kinds of seals, the harbor seal and the harp seal, arranged in a neat pattern.

It is not common to come across a garment of this kind, as the skins of the proi>cr or desired kinds are sometimes hard to obtain.

!R.l

women's garments.

The woman may ht> several years in getting the right kind and may have eftteted many eschan^s before l>Biiig auited witti the quality and color. The darkest skins of the Ka sig yak (harbor «eal) are liighly prized by both sexes. The womea set the higher value upon them. The men wear two styles of leg covering, namely, breeches like a white man's, but not open in front, and reaching but a short distance below the knees, or trousers ending in stocking feet. Sometimes in very cold weather these trousers may be woni under the breeches. Both breeches and trousers are very short-waistcd. Long stockings of short-haired deerskin with the hair in are also worn. The women in winter wear breeches made of deerakin fastened around the hips by means of a drawstring and extending down the legs to where the toi>s of tlie boots will cover them a few inches. Some of the women wear trousers which reach only to the upper part of the thighs and are con- tinuous with the boot which covera thb foot, though in that case a pair of half-boot« are added to protect the feet. The hips are covered with breeches which descend low enough on the thigli to be covered by the leggings. This style of apparel for the lower portion of the body is ^«-!»— B'ktaK.mmn'iie^kinoortWdw. often extravagantly patched with various colored pieces of whit« and dark strips of skin from the abdomen and sides of the reindeer. When liew and not soiled they are (lUJte attractive and oft«n contrast well with the tast«fully ornamented coat.

The long boots or leggings ai-e removed when dirty woik is to bo done. Thus, Hkins to be scraped and dressed are liehl against the bare leg.

The leggings also serve as pockets to hold various kinds of little things, like knives, tobacco, and so on.

A person rarely owns more than a single pair of breeches; con-, sequeutly I was unable to obtain any for the collection.

The boots and shoes are of dillereiit materials and somewhat difierent patterns for differeut seiwons of the year. All have moccasin

Hi mv. ut:iit^}S bat E-^kimo.

mAfM lA nUmt matJiriiil tuniMl up an inch irr f wo all roand tbe foot, a UrtixHf. ''JivttritiK ttits Uift iff tlif. fotn, jninMl U> a broad faeel band wliich IMiimH nmtui Imhiwl tliw aiiklK Then th« Ij^k are either madehHig trtKffiifli lii r(«w^h bf tht! kiiM; 'ri- kIm; »liiHMt to the ankle. TbeM: halflii«rf n utf. worn ovfT tb<< fur HbN-kiof^H iti warm weatber. or ontstde the

toil); IxvtH ill v>>ry itfwn^ wratl^'r. Indiiiu HUM'<\k-«ii)!> arc Also worn.

Mtutt'tiiHtvt tivor « (vuv »(■ uisitlo shmw mul Mtiu^tinit'S as Uwi»U> sh«>es.

VN»r thwV, waltTunttvi" wlos tl(»> skin of tlio Ihvivit «>r tlio luirp seal ia

iisnl, Vlto fiirtiit-r w*!irs lln* Ih'Hit, Wlmt' «liaK» skin is »lsat iisc«l

Ti'swi"! women's garments. 215

for indoor shoes, or for shoes to be worn in cold drj' weatlier; the nkins of tlie SQialler seals are used, sometimes with the flesh side out and the hair in, souietimes with the grsiin side out. These thinner skins are comparatively waterproof if the black epidermis in allowed to remain

on. The beautiful rreamy-wliite leather, miule by allowiug the skin to ferment until hair aiul epidermis are Hcrape4l off together and then stretching the skin and exixisiug it to dry cold air, does not ntsist water at all, and can only be useil for soles in perfiK-tly dry weather. Burkskin soles are also used to enable the wearer to walk better with STiowstuws on, as the feet are not m liiible to slip or clog with

216 THE HUDSON BAT ESKIUO.

snow as they vonld be if the footing were of Realsliia. Thin latter has also another serious disadyantage. If it ia very cold it does not permit the molBtore from the feet to pass oat as it freezes, rendering the boot staff and slippery on the snowshoe, while the buckskin is porous and readily allows the moisture to escape.

Tlie tongue and heel baud are generally made of tanued sealskin, contrasting colors being often used. The legs are ut sealskin, with the hair on, or of reindeer Mkiii.

The flgiires represent a ])air of sealskin boots with backskin feet (Fig. 41) and a pair of half boots with white sealskin soles, black seal-

».]

women's oarhbnts.

Bkin tongne aiid hedlBtrap, and buckskin tops (Fig. 42). The tanned and smoked reindeer Hkin for these tops was purchased fitmi the Nascopie Indians.

A pei^uliar style of shoe (Fig, 43), of which I collected foar pairs, is used by tlie so-called "Northerners," who derive most of their subsistence fh>m the sea in winter, and who constantly have to tnivel on the ice, which is often very slippery. To prevent slipping, narrow strips of

sealskin are sewed upon a pittce of leather, which makes an undersole for the shoe, in the manner shown in the flgnre.

Cue end of the strip is first sewed to the subsole and the atrip pushed up into a loop an<l stitched again, and so on till a piece is made big enough to cover the sole of the shoe, to which it is sewed. These ice shoes are worn over the ordinary waterproof boots.

As I have already said, these boots are all made by the women. The :-4)le is cut out by eye and is broadly elliptical in shape, somewhat i' Muted at the toe and heel. The leg is formed of a single piece, so that

218 THE HUDSOIT BAY ESKIMO.

there is but one seam; tlie tongue or piece to cover the instep may or may not be a separate piece. If itisj tbelegaeam comesio front; if it forms one piece with the leg piece, the seam is behind. Wben the leg is sewed up and the tongue properly inserted the sole is sewed on. It is tacked at the heel, toe, and once on opposite sides of the foot, to the upper. Tlie sewing of the sole to the upper is generally began at the side of the seam and continued around. Perpendicular creases at the heel, and more numerously around the toes, take up the slnok of the sole and are carefully worked in. The making of this part of the shoe is most difficult, for unless it is well sewed it is liable to admit water. The creases or " gathers " are stitched through and through with a stout thread, which holds them in place while the operation proceeds, and which bolides has a tendency to prevent the gathers from breaking down. The lieel, which comes well up the back of the boot, is stiffened by means of several threads sewed perpendicularly, and as they are drawn shorter than the skin, they prevent the heel from falling and thus getting "run down."

The sc4ims of the boots, which are turned inside out dniing the operation, are so arranged on the edge« that one will overlap and be tacked with close stitches over the rest of the seam. This is done not only for comfort when the bootbecomes dry and hard while being worn, but also to take the strain from the stitches which bold the edges together. The value of a pair of boots depends much on the care bestowed in tanning and in sewing.

The hands are protected by mitteiiH of different materials. Fnr or hair mittens are worn only in dry weather, as the hair would retain too much moisture.

Among the Innuit the mammals are divided into two classes: the noble and the inferior beasts. The skins of the former are used, though not exclusively, by the men, while the latter may be worn only by the women. No man would debase himself by wearing a particle of the fur of the hare or of the white fox; the Fio 41 EikiDH) boots skins of these timid creatures are

reserved for the women alone. Either sex may wear the skins of all other mammals, except at certain times, under restrictions imposed by superstition.

The women wear mittens of hare or fox skin, with palms of sealskin or Indian- tunned bird'H Kkin, Reindeer skin with the hair on is also used for mittens. The hea-y tkiu from the l)ody i« selected for the sake of wnrmtli. When these mittens are to be use<l when driving dogs the palm is madtt of sealskin, to eimble the wearer to get a firm grasp on

women's oarhbhts.

the whip handle. The akin of the deer's forelegs, which has hair of » different character from that on the body, also makes excellent mittens, specially suited for handling tinov in building the snow huts. Mittens are sometimes fringed roand the wrist with a strip of white bearskin to keep out the wind.

Tin. 4S, Kakimu ihoHi.

All mittens have sach short thumbs that tliey are very invuuveiiieut for a white man, whohabitnally holds his thumb spread away from the palm, whereas the lunuit usually keep the thumb api>osed to the palm. The wrists of the mitten also are so short that considerable of the wrist is often exposed. The sleeves of the jaeket are generally fringed with wolf or dog skin to protect this exposed portion of the wrist.

Similar mittens of black sealskiu are also worn by the men during damp weather, or when handling objects which • would easily soil a pair of furred mtttcus. I haveilever seen a woman wear this kind of covering for the hand. It appear.^ to bo exchisively worn by the men.

The men who engage in the late fall seal hunting ]mitect their bauds with waterproof ganntlets, which reacli well up over the forearm. These keep the hands from Iteing wet by tlie sjiray and by the drip

££*) THE mjD60N BAT E8KIV0.

from the paddle. Fig. 44. Xo. 90074, repreeeDts one of tboe loog mittens, made of black tanned sealskin, and edged with a strip of hairy sealskin over an inch wide. The l»ack or upper portion of the oittten is made of a single piece of black skin, the e<lge 4if whicb is crimped and tnmed ander to protect the fingers. The palm is a separate piece, joined to the back piece, and on it is a projecting part to form the inner half of the thnmb. The enter half of the thnmb and the nnder aide of the forearm are made of a sin^e piece, stitched to the palm portion and that whicb covers the back of the band and arm, ko that, i nclading the edging of hairy skin, there are only four pieces of skin entering into the make of a pair of these mittens. They are worn only by the men, and only when they are engaged in wrirk where the hands wonld be immersed in water dnriog cold weather. As the skin from which they are made is the same as that QSed fiir water-tight boots, it is obvions that no moisture can toach the skill of the band.

For protection from rain and wet they wear over their other clothes a waterproof hooded frock (Fig. 45) made of seal entrails, preferably the intestines of the bearded seal (Erignathus barbatvs). The intestines of animals killed in October are considered the beet for this pnr- pose. They then are not so &t and reqnire less dressing to clean them. The conteott) are removed uid they ore filled with water and thorotighly washed ont. The fat and other fleshy matter adhering are re- moved by means of a knife nsed as a scraper. This being done, the intestine is inflated with air and stmng along the tops of the rocks to dry. When dry it is carefully flattened and rolled into tight bundles, like a S])ool of ribbon, and laid away until wanted.

When required for nse it is split longitudinally, and when spread oi>en is of variable width from 3 to 6 inches, depending on the size of the animal. The edges of the strips are examined and any uneven portions are cut oH', making the strip of uniform width. There are three separate pieces in a garment — the body and hood as one and the sleeves as two. Sometimes the sleeves are made first and sometimes the body is sewed first, and of this latter portion the hood is first formed. Strips

I. Lobs walcrptonr DMUktii mitten.

■JL.]

CLOTHING.

are sewed edge to edge witli tlie exterior of tbe iiiteatiiie t4) form tbe outside of the garment. The edge m turned down, so as to leaves a width of a third of an inch, and turned tt> the right; tlie other strip is siDiilarly folded, but turned to the left and laid on the other strip. Siuew from the back of a reindeer or from a seal is made into threads a yard or more io length and of the thickness of tneditUD-sized wrapping cord. Theueetlle s usually of n mber 3 or 4 n size or of less diameter than the thread n order that the tl read shall the more effectually . fill up the hole made I y the eedle Tl e tw strips are then sewed with stitches about u ue to the in h th ough d, id through, in a mau-

Flil. K. Waterproor gatTrook.

ner, I la-lieve, termed ninuiug stitches. When a sufficient length is obtiuned a third strip is added, and so on until tlie rc^juircd number of perpend i(:ular strips form a sudicient width to surround tbe body. The outer edges are th^njoiued and the body of the garment is complete. Portions are cut out and tlui hood assumes the desired shape, resembling a nightcap attju;hed to tbe body ofanightgown. Tbe sleeves ai-e sewed in a similar nmuner and aOixed lo tbe body of the garment. The seams run |ierpcndicularly and not around the body in a spiral manner ■ as in garments made by the natives of Alaska for similar pur]>0Hes, The e<ige of the hood, the wrists, and the bottom of tho garment are

222 THE HUDSON BAY ESKIUO.

strcu^tliened by iiieaDH of tbiu strips of aealskiu sewed on the uutside of thoisu parts where they are most liable to be tom. The {^ariiieut is worn during wet weather or while iu the kuiak traveliug on a rough sea. The bottom of the garmeut is tied around the hoop of the kaiak in wbiuli the wearer sits and thus efTeetually sheds the water from the body, except the fauo, and keeps it from entering tbo kaiak.

Sometimes a drawstring closes the hood tightly around the face and . prevents the spray from entering. The string is usually tied at the top of the hood, iu which ease it is rather difficalt to untie.

^lieo uot in use the material must be well oiled and rolled up or it will become so stiff that it can not be worn until it has been relaxed by dipping in water. The sinew with wbiuh it is sewed swells when wet and tightens the sefuns.

• There is grovt difference in the length of the garments worn by the eastern and the western Eskimo as well as in the manner of arranging the strips of which they are made. The one worn by the iteople of Hudson stniit searccly reaches to the hips of the wearer and is long enough only to tie around the hoop of the kaiak. The ones worn by the Eskimo of Xoitliern sound, Alaska, falls to the kuees, and those made by the Aleuts are sohmg that they interfere with the feet in walking. The material prepanx) by the eastern natives is uot so good, as it is coarser and stiffer than that of the sua liuu {Euwtatopiag atelleri), usotl by the natives of Alaska.

The weight of one of these ganneuts when dry scarcely exceeds 6 or 7 ounces.

To protect the eyes from the glare of the snow, which is csi>cvia]ly trying when the sun is still low in early spring, snow goggles are woni made to admit the Ught only through a narrow slit. (Figs. 46,

and 47.) >'os. SliSC, 3187. ;tlS8, 31Sa. ;tUK», SHU. Miti. 31113. 3t»7, 3198, 319!), 3'M*. and 32t>l in the culkH-tiou show such snow gi>sgl<'s made of wuo«l. A Mmiewbat curved piiH-e of wiH>d is fashioned to lit the face tiver the eyes: a notch is titted for the nose to rest in. The lower side

is about batf nn inch thick, forming a flat sarfaw. The front is perpendicular and blackened with soot or gunpowder mixed with oil aud ap- plied to darken the ftout Burface to abiiorb the light of the hilu's raya. Above this in a ledge of half an inch projecting over the narrow longi tudinal slit through which the wearer may look. This projection is eonietimes not blackened on the underside, and where wood is scarce it is left off altogether. Within, on the side next to the eyes, it is usqfilly

Fjii. 47. SDOw-^fjflefl— mr.

gouged out to allow the eyolaehcs iree movement. A piece of sealskin is alBxcd at each end and either tied iu a knot over the head to hold the wood in position, or else a wider strip of skin is slit and one {wrtion Worn on the top of the head while the other fits the back of the head to prevent the goggles from falling off when the wearer stoops down,

OWRLLINIIK.

The winter dwellings of the Eskimo of Hudson strait cfmsist of the usual form of snow house. In this conuectiou I may as well state that the jiopular impression that the snow bouse described by Arctic travelera is the only thing to be called an iglu is quite erroneous. The word "iglu"is as fully generic in the Eskimo language as the word ''house" is in the Englisli language. The correct term, as applied by the Eskimo, to the snow house used as a dwelling is "iglCt geak" (Fig. 48.)

The first requisite for a snow house is snow. It must be of sufScient dei>th and possess certain well-defined qualities. The snow may fall, but until it has acquired sufficient depth for the size of blocks required and firmness enough for strength to withstand the superiwsed weight of the strncture it is useless. An instrument temie<l snowknifo (piinQk), shaped like a short sword, is used for the purpose of cutting the blocks. The Eskimo seeks a place where the insertion of the knife into the bed of snow wiU prove that the snow is in the proper condition. Ue must

then cut out a block of a size convenient to be lifted. This is usually rejected as it may be irregular or broken. Additional blocks, in size from 8 to 10 incheu thick, 2 feet wide, and slightly more in length are cot by a motion mucb resembling the act of sawing, catting the depth of the blade. The knife then cuts the bottom off squarely and the block is lifted out, the builder standing whore the first blocks were cat from. The blocks are arranged on the bank of snow around the pit in which the man stnndft. The first block usually is somewhat triangular

Fia. 48. DeMrUid Kaklmo aoow

in shape for a purpose hereafter mentioned. The second block is cut out and placed near the first, the end clipped with the knife to allow the first joint to be close together. A tliird block is cut and placed by the end of the second. It will now be seen that the line of blocks is not straight, but curved concavely within. Additional blocks are cut and placed end to end with each other until the first one laid is reached- Here a longer block is cut to lay upon the inclined side of the trianga- Iar-shai>cd block first used and so placed as to "break"the joints, and thus render the structure more stable. Additional blocks are placed on the first row, and as the operation proceeds it will bo seen that the blocks lie in a spiral form, gradually drawing in as the structure rises, forming a dome-8hapem which the buQdiiig iiicaterial was taken. The door is cut by taking blocks of snow from under the bottom row of the foundation blocks. A trench is made, and along the side of it the blocks are placed. An arched covering of the material forms a sheltered passageway to the door.

When the snow house is to be occupied for a considerable time the doorway may have walls of snow blocks piled as high as the shoulders, with the top left open. This shields the entrance from wind and drifting snow. Various forms of entrance are constructed, often very tor- tuous; and when made a refuge by the numerous dogs they are not pleasant paths along which to creep on hands and knees, for a panic may seize some cowardly canine and all the dogs struggle to get suddenly out into the oi)en air. Vicicms animals often wait until a wliite man gets about half way through the entry and then make a sudden assault on him.

The interior of the house is an*anged according to the number of persons inhabiting it. ♦

A raised bed, on which to sit during the day and sleep during the night, is formed either by leaving a part of the snow-bank or else by bringing in blocks and arranging them as a solid mass. On this are spread bows of spruce, or dry grass, if obtainable, otherwise fine twigs of willow or alder, and over these heavy reindeer or bear skins are thrown. On these bed-skins are laid other softer skins of reindeer, with which to cover the person on retiring to skH?p. A window is sometimes set in the side of the structure toward the sun. This is simply a piece of thick, clear ice, from a lake, set in the wall of the dome. It admits light, although it is generally light enough during the day within the snow-house unless the walls be. built particularly thick, but great thi(».kness in certain situations becomes necessary lest the winds and drifting snow wear away the sides of the structure, causing it to admit the cx)ld or tumbledown. Around the outside of the hut is sometimes built a protecting wall of snow blocks, two or three feet higli, to ])revent the drifting snow from wearing away the side of the dwelling. A storm of a single night's duration is often sufficient to destroy a hcmse.

The interior walls, iji severe weather, become coated with frost Alms from the breath, etc., condensing and crystallizing on the inside of the dome and often presenting by the lamplight a brilliant show of myriads of reflecting surfaces scintillating with greater luster than skillfully set gems.

If the roof is not carefully shaped it is liable to cave in from the heat within softening the snow, especially in moilerat^ weather, and then the entire structure falls.

Where the owner of the house has considerable possessions which must be protected from the dogs and the weather, a similar structure is prepared alongside of the dwelling and often connected with it by 11 ETH 15

means of a commuuicating passage-way. An exterior opening may be made and closed with a block of snow. The larger articles, such as bags of oil and bundles of skins, are put inside before the walls are up, if intended to be stored for some time.

As I have slept in these snow-houses I can assert that, while very uncomfortable, they afford a protection which can not be dispensed with. When the doorway is open they soon become very cold, and when closed uiKm several persons the heat becomes intolerable. Odors from the food remain long after the renmants are disi>osed of, and where one has been occupied for a long period the accumulation of refuse becomes so great that a new structure is indispensable in order t/O get rid of it. All the work of the different members of the family is performed within the walls. The skins of animals are dressed and tanned there. The offal of game and the hair from dressed skins mingle in one mass, which soon putrefies and creates such a stench that only an Eskimo with most obtuse sense of smell could inhabit the place.

When spring comes the huts begin to melt and in the course of a few warm days fall down. If the weather is too inclement to permit a skin tent to be occupied, the first hole in the wall may be patched with a deerskin, but this will afford very limited protection from the cold of nights, for, however warm the days, the nights will, until late in May, be so cold that only the older individuals withstand the cold.

When the structure falls, melted by sun or rain, the miserable occupants must erect temporary shelter of deerskin or cloth on the bare rocky ridges. Those too poor to own a skin tent have often but a blanket of deerskin, stretched over three or four poles, set to shelter them from the chilly northerly winds usually prevailing at that season.

Here they must sojourn until the ice breaks from the shores of the coves and bays, enabling the hunters to procure seals from the sea. Along the shores one may often find camping sites of these poor wanderers searching through the day for food and at night camping under the lee of a wall of rock with little other covering than that worn during the day and this often soaked with spray or rain.

Improvidence and indolence result in the most cruel privations toward the end of winter. Many who are too weak and emaciated from lack of food to pursue the chase to gain a living starve before reaching the sea and are left to perish.

When the season is more advanced^ and the weather warm enough, those who are industrious and provident enough to be the possessors of sealskin tents, move into them for the season.

The skin tent (PI. xxxvii) is usually made of the skins of the Largest square flipper seals, those too heavy for any other purpose or not necessary for other uses.

The number of skins necessary to form a tent varies with the size required. Generally as many as ten to fifteen are used, and such a tent will accommodate a good sized family.

The hair is seldom removed from the skin, which is simply stretched as it comes from the animal and freed from fat and fleshy particles. The edges are trimmed and a sufficient number of skins are sewed together to form a length for one side of the tent. The length of the in- dividual skins makes the height of the tent. A similar width is prepared for the opposite side. The two pieces meet at the re>ar of the structure and are there tied to the poles. A separate piece forms the door and may be thrown one side when a person enters or goes out. The i>oles of the tent are arranged as follows: Two pairs of poles are joined near the ends with stout thongs and erected with the lower ends spread to the proper w idth, forming the ends of the tent, on which the ridgepole is laid. A single pole is now placed near each end of the ridgeix)le, resting on the upright pairs, to prevent lateral motion. Two more such braces are placed on each side and spread so as to give a somewhat rounded end to the tent. Near the middle of the ridgepole is a pair of shorter poles leaning against it to prevent the weight of the sides from bending the ridgepole. It will be seen that eleven poles are ne<'.essary to support a long tent, as the skins are very heavy. The skins and poles can be transported when the umiak is able to carry them.

In case of continued rains the skins are placec so as nearly to meet over the ridge and additional skins cover the space left between the edges. When the tent is to be taken down the two widths are folded over, each by itself, and then rolled into a compact bundle by beginning at each end and folding toward the (»enter, leaving sufficient space between the rolls for a person to get his head and shoulders in. Two persons, one for each roll, now assist the carrier, who kneels, bows his head, and places the load on his head and shoulders. The two assist him to rise and the heavy loiwl is taken to the umiak and placed in the bottom for ballast. The shorter poles are first laid in on the ribs of the boat to keep the skins from the water should any seep through the seams. The second bundle of tenting is laid on the first.

The tent of skins is the usual shelter during the season from the first rain until a sutlicient fall of snow occurs in the early winter from which to construct an iglu gheak.

The interior of the skin tent is necessarily quite roomy on pxjcount of the number of occupants. The farther end often has a stick of timber laid across the floor, and behind this is the bedding for the owner, his wives, and children. A man who is fible to own a tent of this character is also wealthy encmgh to have two or more wives. Along the remainder ot the sides within lie the other occupants, either in groups or singly, depending on the degree of relationship existing between

them. Guests and otbers temporarily abiding wltli the host are assigned any portion of the tent that the host may choose to select, usu- ally, if great honor is to be shown, the place lately occupied by himself. The central portion is reserved for a firei)lace for cooking and heating purposes. In this structure is carried on all manner of work incidental to the season. The tent is taken from place to place by means of the umiak when the food supply of a locality is exhausted or another region promises greater abundance.

All these summer occupations require a number of persons to successfully prosecute them, hence the number dwelling in one tent is not often detrimental, as the adults walk along the shore to drag the boat or relieve it from their weight.

The owner of a tent is considered an important individual, and his favor is retained by every means. A period of illness may cause him to lose aJl his belongings and then on recovery he has to start life anew. Several seasons may elapse before a sufficient number of skins will be procured for him to make a tent, and this is immovable without a boat to transport it, for when a sled might be used for that puriwse there is always enough snow from which to erect a shelter.

During the winter the skins are stored away on posts erected for the purpose, or on piles of rocks where the various species of sniall animals will not destroy them by eating holes in the oily skin. Mice and ermines are very destructive to these skins, often causing sad havoc in a short time. By the spring the owner may be miles away from the scene of the previous autumnal hunt and be unable to go after the tent, which, with the summer rain and decay, becomes useless, imposing the severe task of collecting skins for a second tent.

In former times these people inhabited permanent winter houses like those used by the Eskimo elsewhere, as is shown by the ruins of sod and stone houses to be seen in various parts of the country. These appear to have had walls of stone built up to support the roof timbers, with the interstices filled up with turf or earth. From the depression remaining in the inside of these ruins, the floor seems to have been excavated to a greater or less depth.

The present inhabitants relate that their ancestors dwelt in these huts, but can not explain why they were deserted, or why such structures are not erected at the present day.

HOUSEHOLD AIITICLES.

There is very little in these dwellings that can be called furniture, besides the bed i>laces already referred to. The other articles requisite for housekeeping consist of a lamp of soapstone, kettles to hang over it, a frame suspended above the lamp for drying various articles, and sundry wooden bowls, buckets, and cups, besides similar vessels made of sealskin.

Ti-RNBh.) HOUSEHOLD AETICLES. 229

The lamt) (poqila), wliich is tbe only Rource of beat nitd light in the snow house, is, roughly 8t>eaking, a largo shallow bowl of soapstone

Flu. ia. Suapitou lamp, EoksoagmyDt.

filled with oil, which is burned by means of a wick of moss, arranged round one edge of the bowl. The niiiterial from which these lami>s are made occurs in isolated

ip. KalBoajnnyat.

bowlders on the surface of the ground at varions places in the region. These bowlders are ofrt'ii of great Hize.

The general tbrm of these lamps, which will be l)eBt nnderstood from the figures ( I'igs. -HI, 50, 51 ), is nearly always the same, the variataons being apparently due to the lack of material. The cavity for holding the oil varies in ca|iacity, according to the size of the lamp, from half a pint t*) nearly thre(i quarts. It is, however, never filled to the brim,

Fid. SI. SoBpstoDB liuiip. Kokaoatnnj'Dt,

for fear it should run over. Tbe consumption of oil depends upon the number of wicks lighted at once, and also ou the character of the wick.

The wick in general use is prepared from a kind of moss, which grows in large patches close to the ground, the stalks rising perpeu-

230 TRE HUDSON BAY ESKIMO.

tlKnlnrly, aiiil the whole bo matted together tbat it may be cat Into any tlo»iiv4 fonn. Prom these patches pieces are cut an inch or two wide, a tliini of an inch tbick aad two or three inches in length, and laid

away to dry. When one of these is to be used the woman squeezes the fibers together with her teeth, trims it, and sets it in the oil, and lights it. The light from one of these wicks is nearly equal to that of an inch wick fed with a good quality of kerosene. The heatis very great.

For cooking, a larger wick is used, or two of the smaller one» set side by side. Over the lamp is placed a frame for drying wet boots, mittens, and such things. Fig. 52 repre.sentB one of these (No. ^iOiH), which is a semicircle or bow of wood with the endH fastened to a straight piece of wood. Aci'OHB these strands of sinew or sealskin forms a sort of net-

TUHMR.) HOUSEHOLD AETKLES. 231

ting liaving large mcslies. On this rests the article to be dried. Under this is a support formed of two sharp-pointed iiegs which are stuck iuto tlie snow forming tlie side of tlie lint. On the outer end of these is fastened, or hvid across them, a pierc of wood. The shape of the support is that of a long stiiple with s(jiiar4' corners, in some instances the |>egfi form only a wide v-shapo, and the fVaiiio for sup])orting the articles hud directly on this. A block uS wwnl hollowed out to rwjeive the convex l^ottom of the lamp is sometimes used t{> snppoi-t the latter. In former times cooking over these lamps was universally performed in kettles of soapstone, in which cooking was also done by putting

F:ii. ti. SoapabiDC kvtUfl.

heated stones into the wat^r. These soapstone kettles are, however, quite sniKTseded by utensils of <ivilized luanufiieture. I, however, suece<-ded in collecting two full-sized stone kettles, and one little one, made for a ehihl's toy. The figures (Figs. 53, 54) show the shape of these vessels sufUciently well. The handles are made of strips of whalebone. The larger kettle ( No. 31 7i)) is nearly 13 inches long, and will hold nearly a gallon. They were niadeof different capacities in former times, varying from about a pint to a full gallon.

Oblong shallow dishes (pu glm' tak) for hohling oil oc food are car^-ed from lai-ch knots. The figure (Fig. 65) represents a model of one of

J$2 THE HUDSON BAY ESKIMO.

r)i««v. BacketB aud cups of Tarioas sizes for holding water and other ^}ds arv made of taoiied seal skin sewed with Hiiiow. The sides of the bucket are a strip of noil skin bent iuto a ring, with a round piece of seal skin sewed on for a bottom. Sometimca a seal-Bkin bail in added, or a wooden handle Hewed to the Ups of the cup, makinj; it into a dipper (Figs. 50, 57.) Wooden baskets are made iu a siniiilur fashion strip of spruce wood is bent nearly circalar. The ends of the strip are fastened with fine iron wire. The bottom is a separate piece aud has a rim or edge for Fw,» s«i.kinbackt. Fm. 57. 3«i.kiD cnp. the uppcr part to

set on, and is held in place by means of sniall wooden pegs driven thnmgh and into the bottom.

Tlie capMuty of tlieae vessels is seldom more than a couple of quarts, and generally lews. They are principally used to ladle watei- into the fouking kettles. All these vessels of native manufacture are being nipidly displaced by tin cups and small kettles.

Under certain conditions a great portion of their food is eaten raw, hut it is iuvaiiably cooked wlieu it conveniently can be. Frozen food is consumed in great quantities. I have seen them strip and devour the back, fat, and tlesh from the body of a deer while the libers were yet quivering. The entrails of many species of birds are taken from the l>i,dy and, while yet warm, swallowed much after the manner of swallowing ail oyster. The eggs which have been incubated to an advanced degree arc as eagerly <levoured as those quit© f^esh.

Tlie deer meat, killed the previous fall and frozen for three or four months, is cat into huge chunks and gnawed with as much satisfaction as though it was the finest pastry. On such occasions I Inive seen the person apiwinted to chop up the frozen meat scatter the pieces among the expectant crowd with as little ceremony us tbatof thrawing cars of corn to the hogs iu a pen. For a change the frozen pieces of meat are sometimes warmed or thawed before the fire.

The blood of the deer is often mixed with the half-digested mass of food in the stomach of tlie animal, and the stomach, withits contents, with the addition of the blood, eaten raw or boiled. Sometimes it is laid aside to ferment and then frozen aud eaten in this condition.

Strips of fat from a seal and the blood of the animal are put into a kettle and heated. The oily liquid is eaten with the greatest relish- Seal oil is iLsed for food in about the same manner as we use syrups. Years of almost daily intercourse with these i)eople have failed to show the ability of any person to drink seal or whale oil without illness resulting. They never drink i)ure oil under any circumstances, except as a laxative. The statement often made that these people drink oil as food is simply preposterous. Such statements doubtless arose from seeing other preparations of food having an abundance of oil upon them. Lean flesh is often dip[)ed into oil and then eaten. If partaken of without oil in as great ([uantities as these people require, a tori)id cx)ndition of the liver and alimentary canal results, and they thus employ the ]mre oil to relieve themselves.

Vegetable food is little used except in the vicinity of the trading stations. Those accustomed to the use of flour, bread, peas, beans, and rice are very fond of them, and often express regret that they will be deprived of them when on their hunting expeditions.

Native plants afford little help as food. During the season when the various berries are ripe all the x)eople gorge themselves. They have a special fondness for the akpik (Rubun chwmotnortut). The sun scarcely reddens the side of these berries, locally known as "bake api)le,^ before the children scour the tracts where they grow, and eat of the half- ripened fruit with as much relish as the civilized boy does the fruit purloined from a neighbor's orchard. Other berries contribute their share as food.

When on trips the women often gather a few green herbs and put them in a kettle of water and make an infusion in lieu of tea. They are fond of tea, coffee, and sugar. Molasses is eaten alone or with something dipped in it.

The Eskimo drink otl^n and astonishing quantities of water at a time. If the weather be very cold they often drink the water which has been heated on a fire, asserting that the hot water does not weaken them as much as cold water wouhl do.

When a seal has been killed and is being brought to camp, the hunter signities his success from a distance, and those in camp raise a joyous shout. The animal is drawn ashore and skinned. The flesh is devoured raw as the process goes on, or may be divided, certain portions being given the ditterent persons. The* blood is collected, and when the ine^it is boiled it is mixed with the hot liquid and forms a nutritious dish, eagerly devoured by both adults and young. The children revel in this dish to a sacrifice of cleiinliness.

The feast is continued until the flesh has been devoured and the people gorged to theii* utmost capiicity. Stories are told and general good humor prevails. The diflerent spe<*ies of fish which frequent the shallow waters of the bays are used as food.

All the adults are a^ldieted to tlie use of tobacco, both for smoking aud ubewlug aod in the form of snuff, although it is not everyoue that use» tobacco iu all tbrae ways.

The plug tobaa^o, used for smoking and chewing, is carried in a small pouch of sealxkin attached to the belt, wbicb keeps it from being dami>eiicd by perspiration or rain. Watcbes are also carried in the same receptacle. Fig. 58 (No. 74485) is such a bag, made of hairy seal skin. The edges alone are trimmed with lighter colored strips of seal skin. A string holds the mouth of the bag together after it is rolled up. A loop at ouo corner ouables the bearer to affis it to his belt when traveling t^) avoid the iiecesiiity of opening the bag in wbich lie usually cirries siich small things.

Leaf tobacco is preforred for the preparation of snoft', but as this is uot always to be had plug is often used. This is shredded np and

FiQ. 58. Tabsoio pouch.

dried, and when dry enough in reduced to a powder by inclosing a quantity in a fv>ld of seal skin and pounding it with a stone or stick.

Snuff is kept in a pitrse-s)i»p4^d bag, closed at the mouth with a tbong. To it is attached a little spoon maile of ivory. Various forms of this implement are made. The general ap])Ciirauce is that of a common spoon, of which the ends and sides of the bowl ai-e cut off. At tlio end of the handle is a slight depression for containing the snuff, which is held (irmly against the orifice of the nostril aud inhaled by a »udden indrawing of the breath while the thumb of the other hand closes the opiwsite nostril.

The old women appear more addicted to the use of suiiff than any of till- men. The effect of inhaling the strong snuff is quickly shown in tlic face. 1 1 seems to affect people more than the use of tobacco iu any other way.

TUBsra.! BiEANS OF TRANSPORTATION. 235

MKANH OV TRANHP«RTATION.

The principal meniia of ponvcyjmce by water with the Eskimo of Hudnon striiit, is the umiak, referred to by most writers as the woman's boat. ThiH appellation is jiot more ap]>lirabIo than would be the term family boat. Tlic wonieTi use the boat alone only on rare oixasions, and then in ({uiet water and for short distances. Men are nearly always in it, and under the gnidaiice of one of these, the boat is used for long journeys.

Tlie form of the niniak, in the region under consideration, differs gieatly from that of the Eskimo of Hering sea. (See Fig. 59, from a mo<lel.)

The size of the boat is variable aooordtng to the means of the builder and the size of the family to ha ojjiiveyed in it. The length of the keel is i¥om 10 Ui 25 feet. Over all the length is 1 or 2 feet greater than on the keel. It will be thus seen that the ends are nearly perpendicular. It is dillicnlt to determine at the flrstglanre which is the bow and which tlie steru, so nearly alike are tliey. They only differ in the former being somewhat wider at the ui)i)er edge or rail.

Fk. sa. EaklniD nmlnk.

The keel is a straight i)iece of wood hewed fi-om a single stick, nearly 4 inelies square. The stem and stern posts ai-e nearly alike, the latter having but little slope, and are cut from curved or crooked stems of trees. A tree may be found, which, when hewed, will form the stern- IKtst and keel in one length. Otherwise the fore and aft posts have places cut out for the insertion of the respe<:tive ends of the keel, and are fastened lirmly by stont thongs of sealskin thrust through holes bored in the wood and ingeniously lashed. As the Ijottom of the umiak is Hat the sides of the bottom are formed of stpiare rails of sufficient length and given the desired spread. They are held at the ends by being Joined to the keel. Crosspieces notched at the ends separate the bottom rails and are steadied in ]K)BitioD by l>eing notched so as to sit on the scjnare keoi. On the ends of the crosspieces is laid a see. ond rail which prevents them from rising and serves to strengthen the ends of the ribs, which are set alternately with the ciosspioces of the

keel. The ribs are attached to the lower or bottom rail by meaDS of sealskin lashing. Along the upper ends of the ribs is placed a longer rail of smaller diameter and usually shaved round. This rail is usually set half its diameter into rounded notches of the upper ends of the ribs and fastened by thongs. Within and below the top rail is a shorter rail, generally smaller than the upper, tied by thongs to the ribs and posts fore and aft. A wide board projecting several inches on each side of the stem serves as a seat for the steersman. The ends of the top rails are laid over this board and attached to it. A similar board is placed at the forward end or bow, but is, of course, longer as that end is the wider of the two.

Three to five thwarts, serving as seats for the occupants, are placed at proper intervals, having their ends resting on the inside top rail. One of these thwarts also serves to steady the mast, which is stepped into the ke<^l and lashed to the tliwait.

On the side of the boat and reciting on the toj) rail are pieces of wood firmly lashed. A notch, or rowlock, is cut into them to serve as rests for the heavy oars. The oars are held into the notch by means of loops of stout thong, the ends of the loops passing each other, one from forward and the other from aft, and through both of the loop ends the in- ner end of the ojir is thrust. The loops serve to hold the oar when not in use, otherwise it would float away; yet the position of them allows the oars to lie alongside in the water. The oars are heavy and as much as 10 feet long for a large umiak. The women generally run the boat and are assisted by the younger men of the party who may not be walking along the shore. Two or more females sit side by side and if they be insufiQcient a third person faces them and assists in the labor. It is a favorite place for a young man with his sweetheart. The steersman sits on the aft^r board and attends to the helm and sail when the latter is in use. The sail is a nearly square sheet of cloth spread by a yard across the top. The lower corners have each a rope which the helmsman hohls. A fair wind only can be used to advantage as the oomiak, from its flat bottom, is unable to go to windward. With a breeze nearly aft they can be made to sail at a good speed.

The covering of the umiak is made of skins of the largest seals. The skins are freed from hair and all a<lhering flesh and fat, and stretc*.hed to their utmost tension.

They are then cut into the proper shape and sewed together. The edge of one skin overlaps that of the other and the 'lap is then tacked over the shorter edge and attached to the other skin so as to form two seams at each juncftion.

Those portions which are to cover the bottom are sewed with si)ecial care, as the seams are liable to be strained in shoving the boat over the oars when it is taken from the wat^r at each camp. When skins are bcwed side to side in sufficient number to tit the length of the frame

they are lifted around it and temporarily placed in i)08ition. The superfluous portions are cut out or additional i)ieces put in until it fits proi)erly on the frame. Holes, 3 or 4 inches apart, are cut in the edges of the skin and stout thongs are passed through these an<l over the top rail to the inner rail. All the strength of the individual is now applied to draw the skin over the top rail. Being wet it readily stretches, and when the entire covering is drawn sufficiently tight the lashing around the rail is permanently fastened. The boat is then turned keel ui) to dry. If the skin has been properly cut and stretched it sounds like a drum when struck.

When in use the greatest care must be exercised to prevent contact with rocks, but in shallow water it fi^ecpiently ha])pens that a hole is cut in the skin of the boat, when the rent must be patched with a piece of skin. During the winter months the umiak is placed on staging of posts to protect it from the ravages of mice and other animals.

Journeys of considerable length are undertaken in these boats. A large family, or two or more families, may remove to a dist^ince to try their fortunes. They always stop at night and during bad weather, and the journey is accomplished by easy stages. All the portable possessions of the family are taken in these boats, which are often loaded to such a d(»gree that the older people have to walk along the shores and only go into the umiak to relieve some one who desires to walk. Where the beach is good a tracking line is attached to the bow and, those on shore drag the boat along. The dogs which accompany the party are sometimes harnessed and made to pull. The tracking line is called into requisition whenever a trip is made up a river to the hunting grounds for reindeer.

Tlie kaiak or skin canoe used by the Eskimo of Hudson strait belongs to the Greenland type. It is quit« difl'erent from that used by the natives of Alaska. These boats vary from 18 to 20 feet in length; the greatest width, one-third of the distance aft the hole where the rower sits, being oiu^-seventh to one-ninth of the entire length of the kaiak. The ends are shaip, the prow much more acute than the stern. The bottom is quite flat and the frame for the keel and sides at the bottom is arrange<l similarly to that of the umiak. The i)row is simply an extension of the keel and slopes above tlie water to a height nearly double that of the stern. The slope of the stern is gradual and short. The side timbers at the bottom have the ui)i)er surface gouged so as to allow the h)wer ends of the nearly perpendicular ribs to rest in the groove. The ribs extend across the bottom, rest- ing on the side timber ami keel. Their upper ends are inserted in the upper rail, which extends the entire length of the H^^i'^l^* The upi>er rails are held apart by crosspieces of (lifferent lengths, according to l)Osition. On the top of these upper crosspieces is laid a piece which extends to the nose of the kaiak. A similar, but shorter one, is laid

from tbe hole where the rower sits to the stern of the kaiak. The iMrile for his body is placed between a pair of crossbars where the eqailibrium will be best maintained. The hoop of wood which outlines the hole is variable in shape, but resembles half of a short ellipse, the posterior of which is slightly curved to fit the back of the rower. Just forward of the seat the upper surface of the canoe is somewhat elevated by the curvature of the crossbars, and it thus enables the rower to have greater freedom for his limbs than he otherwise would. This particular part, the elevation just forward of him, alone resembles any portion of the kaiaks used by the Alaskan Eskimo, and of these, only the subtribes in the vicinity of Bering strait [and thence to Point Barrow. — j. M.] have that part of the kaiak so fashioned. With that exception the top of the Hudson strait kaiak is flat on the top. Just forward of the hatch, two or three stout thongs are sewed to the outer edge of e^ch side of the boat and extend across the top. A similar thong is placed behind. Under these thongs are placed the paddle, also the spears, and other hunting gear. Small game is sometimes tied to thei>e.

The outfit, consisting of si>earsand their appurtenances, properly belongs with the kaiak. Of these implements, there are difterent kinds, depending on the game and the season of the year. As the kaiak is used only during the se;isons of oi>en water it is laid aside during the winter.

I remembtT an instance occuiTing opposite Fort Chimo. A kaiak had been left until tbe ice in the river was firm enough to enable. the vessel to be brought over on it to the station. One day a woman declared that she could see a wolf tearing the skin from the frame. It was scarcely credited, but in thecourseof half an hour the wolf started across towards the post. It was met and showe‹l some disi›osition to attack, but was shot. I watched to see where the men went to look at the kaiak, and when they reached the ]>lace I was astounded that the woman could discern even the kaiak at such a distance.

The spear used for white whales and large seals consists of a wooden shaft of 6 or 8 feet in length, having a projection on the side, made of ivory and shaped like the fin of a fish. This fin shaped piece rests against the forefinger, while the remainder of the hand gra^sps the shaft. The lower end of the shaft terminates in a piece of bone or ivory of 1 to IJ inches in diameter. (Fig. 07.) A socket is ma4le in the end of the bone portion, and the wooden shaft is nicely fitted into it and fastened either by thongs or rivets. At the farther end of the l>one head is a thimble-shaped hole gouged out. and iut4> this a short piece of straight bone or ivory is fitted, having the ends so shaped that they will work smoothly into the hole at the end of the bone head of the s[>ear. The farther end of this bone shaft is so shajied that it will work into the bone or ivory jwrtion of the piece into which the si>ear ]>oint is/astened. The point is shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. OS) and is not

TUKHEB.1 THE KAIAK. 239

mncli varied iu general sbape. There are two joints between the spear point and the bone shaft head. This enables the spear-point to become easily detached when the game is pierced. If this were not so, the bone or ivory would soon break with the violent motions of the animal, and the implement would be rendered useless until repaired. Thongs connect the various parts together, also connecting them with the main shaft of the spear. A long line, usually left lying in a coil just in front of the hunter, gives ample scope for play until the animal is exhausted. If the sea is rough or the hunter unable to cope with the quarry, the float, to be described below, is thrown over and the seal or whale allowed to take its course, the hunter following and endeavoring to harass the animal as much as possible, giving it a stab with the hand spear whenever occasion otters.

In addition to the whale or seal spear, the hand spear, float, and paddle, the kaiaker may have a wooden shaft, on the end of which are three prongs of barbed iron, each prong 8 to 10 inches long, and set in the form of a divergent trident. With this implement, small seals and the white-coated young are killed. Birds, too, are sometimes speared with this trident.

The hand board, or implement with which certain si>ears are hurled, is a piece of wood of such shape that a description will give but little idea of its form. It is about 14 inches long, flat, and has a groove on one side into which the rejir end of the spear shaft rests, and is supported by the three fingers of the hand while the index finger fits into a hole cut through the board, of the shape to ac^commodate that digit. The tip of the finger rests against the shaft of the spear. Other notches are cut along the side of the board to enable the three fingers to lie in position to give a firm grasp on the end or handle of the board. The thumb turns over so as to lie directly on the si)ear, to steady it, while the other fingers give the spear the necessary straight motion when the arm is drawn back and raised nearly perpendicularly. When it reaches that position the motion is arrested and the fingers release the implement held along the groove. The hand board or thrower is retained and the spear recovered if the object has not be^n struck. If the aim was good the spear remains attached to the stniggling animal, and the hand board is quickly placed under one of the thongs stretched across the top of the kaiak. The paddle is held in the left hand and ready for instant use.

The paddle is quite heavy and of variable length, having long, narrow blades, which are alternately dipped into the water. The use of the paddle requires some practice before one be<*omes accustomed to it. When in use the paddle rests on the edge of the hoop, forming the rim of the hatch, and moves along it in the motion of propulsion.

As the paddle dips into the water the dripping often causes the clothing to become wet. To obviate this, these peoi)ie use a piece of

240 THE HlfbSON BAY ESKIMO.

plaited rope or skin to slip nearly to the beginning of the blade. This causes the dripping to fall outside of the kaiak; and in cold weather is very necessary, unless heavy mittens of tanned sealskin be worn.

An implement used for hooking into the body of a sunken seal or whale is made in the following manner: A piece of wood is prepared about 8 feet long and three-fourths of an inch thick, having a width of an inch and a half. The lower end of this luirS a strong hook made of stout iron set into it. Along the inner edge of the wooden shaft two or three notches are cut. The end near the person has a V-shaped notch cut into it. This is used for all the purposes of a boat hook, and also to retrieve a sunken aniuial. A weight is attached to near the hook end to keep the shaft perpendicular in the water. A line of sufficient length is attached to it. The hunter hiis marked the locality, and with the hook **feels" the bottom for the game. When found the hook is jerked into the skin and the object brought to the surface. The staff is very necessary while the kaiak is being moved thnmgh narrow channels among the ice fields. It is, in fact, available in many in- stances where the paddle wcmld, from its length, be useless. The kaiak outfit would be incomplete without the hook.

A young man starts out in life with a gun and ammunition with which to procure game. If he has the energy to become a successful hunter he will soon be able to make a kaiak, and thus procure the marine mammals whose skins will afford a covering for an umiak and in the course of time additional skins for a tent. These possessions usually (5ome in the order laid down, and when they are all procured he is generally able to have others under his direction assist in transporting them from place to place; and thus he becomes the head of a gens or family, including his brothers and sisters with their husbands, wives, and cliildren. These usually move in a body wherever the heM may dictate, and all their possessions accompany them on the journey. Brothers often live together and own the tent and umiak, the remainder of the household affairs being considered iis individual prop- erty and not to be used by all without permission.

Some of the men are too improvident to prepare these skins when they have the opiwrtunity, and thus they are unable to own a kaiak, which prevents them from providing themselves with the umiak and tent. These persons must liv^e with others or dwell by themselves and pass a miserable existence, scarcely noticed by their fellows even during a season of abundance.

The collection contains one full-sized kaiak, with all itB fittings, and their models, including a toy kaiak cut from a walrus tusk. The model is just 1) inches long and ([uite perfect in form. The double-bladed paddle accompanying is made from the same material, and is six inches long.

ON LAND.

The universal means of transportation on land is the sled, drawn by

dogs. Tlie number of dogs used to draw a sled varies according to the distance to be traveled, the character of the country, the condition of the animals, and the weight of the load to be drawn. From one to twenty dogs may be used. The common team for general purposes is seven or nine animals.

The method of constructing sleds differs slightly in different parts of the region, and then only where the material may be difficult to obtain or a heavy sled may not be needed. A tree of a suitable size is selected, generally larch, because of its greater strength, although somewhat heavier than the si)nice.

It is necessary, for greater strength, that eaeh runner be of a single piece of timber. The length of the runner is from 12 to 16 feet; the height varies from 10 to 12 inches. The piece mus: be as nearly free from knots and crossgrain as possible, for these defects render the wood very brittle during cold weather. The runners are roughly hewn at the place where originally cut, and, when needed, they are brought to the temporary camping phice of the Eskimo, and there dressed with I)lane and saw to the required form. The bottom of the runner is usually 2i to 3 inches thick, gradually becoming thinner by one-half an inch to an inch toward the tt>p. This enables the sled to make a wider track at the bottom and encounter less friction of the runner sides agjjinst the snow crust. The curve at the forward end is long and very gradual. There may be as much as 3 feet of the curved part, which rises above the level of the lower edge of the runner. This enables the sled t^) creep easily over any obstruction. The runners are now placed parallel, separated by a distance of 14 to 16 inches, and on these are fastened crossbars 3 inches wide, of sufficient length to allow about an inch to projecjt over the outer edge of each runner. Near the ends of these slats is cut a notch on each edge. Sometimes a hole is also bored through the slat between the notches. These are for the purpose of fastening the slats to the runners. A sufficient number having been prepared, and placed 1 or 2 inches apart, they are now laid on the flat top of the runner. Holes are bored through the top of the runner to correspond with the holes and notches of the slats. Through these and over the slats a stout piece of heavy sealskin line is threaded, and so on through and over the slats and runner until it is firmly fastiuied. The line must be well soaked in water to render it flexible and allow it to stretch, otherwise the joints where it was tied would soon work loose. The line shrinks while drying, and draws as tight as though made of the best iron. No metal is used, for the reason that it would snap as easily as chalk during cold weather. The use of the thongs in binding the slats to the runners allows freedom to the motion of the sled when passing over inequalities of sur- face, where a rigidity of the sled would soon cause it to break. The bottom of the runner is shod with iron brought by the traders for that

11 ETH 16

purpose. It is simply extra- wide boop-iron and of a width to fit. It is fastened on with screws, the heads of which are countersunk.

Another kind of shoe is put on when traveling in very cold weather. A swampy track is searched for soil of half-decomposed vegetation and i)ure humus, as nearly free from sand and gravel a« possible. It must possess certain qualities or it may not have the requisite strength — nuich, I i)resume, as mortar often requires to be tempered with more or less lime or sand when it is too rich or too poor. The Eskimo tempers his mortiir ^ith the almost impalpable soil found under the larger si>reading trees of the forest. It is the slowly decomposed vegetation fallen from branches and trunks. The manner of preparing it is as follows: A large kettle is partially tilled with the material and heated to the boiling point, being constantly stirred, and while yet cool enough all coarse sticks, grass blades, pebbles, etc., are carefully re moved as the fingers discover them in working the mortar. The sled is turned over with the bottom of the runner up. The mud is now applied by the hands, a couple of i)ound8 being taken and pressed on the runner, which has previously been wetted. This process of adding to the runner is continued until it attains an additional depth of 3 or 4 inches and a mdth of 3 to 5 inches. It now resembles the rail of a stairway. When it has been thoroughly gone over to fill up any inequalities the sled is set aside in order that the mud may freeze solid. The sled must be handled with care, as the least jar or jolt will break the "setting" mud. After it is frozen the owner takes a plane and planes it down to the proper shape and smoothness. It is somewhat difficult to describe the shape in words, unless it be compared to the upper part of the T rail of a railroad inverted — neither rounded nor fiat, but so fashioned as to give the best bearing surface with the lejist friction. When the plane has finished its work the color of the mud is a rich chestnut brown. The builder now takes water in his mouth and spirts it in a spray along the mud. As soon as the water touches the runner it nmst be spread evenly with a hand incased in a mitten of reindeer skin, rubbing back and forth until the runner looks like a bar of black glass. The sled is then ready for use. Great care is necessary to avoid rocks or stones, as these cut the polished mud an<i roughen it. If a sudden lurch causes a i)ortiou of the nnid to drop out the piece is frozen on again by means of water, or if crumbled a piece of ice is cut to the shape and caused to adhere by water freezing it to the runner.

It is not often that one may find a sled shod with bone, as is the custom with the Eskimo farther north, and especially farther west. The only instance where I have seen bone used was by some of the people from the western extremity of Hudson strait. Thcvse had only a portion of the curve and a part of the runner shod with bone and pieces of reindeer horn, secured to the runner by means of pegs.

The greatest objection to the use of mud is that a few hours of warmth may cause it to loosen and render it worthless. The ])olish

TURifKB.l THE DOG SLED. 243

suffers when traveling over rough ice, and especially where sand has drifted from some exposed bank to the surface of the snow. This causes very hard pulling, and soon roughens the running surface of the sled. To repair such damage the native stops, at a convenient place, to obtain water, which ia. spirted on the runner and rubbed evenly until it ac(iuires a tliickness of one-eighth of an inch. This coating of ice may last for the entire day of travel where the "roads" are good.

The harness for the dogs consists of two large nooses, placed one above the other. These are joined by two perpendicular straps of 4 or 5 inches in length at a sufficient distance from the end to allow the head of the dog to pass through so that one noose will lie along the back and the other between the forelegs. At the rear ends of the nooses is a long thong of the heaviest sealskin of variable length depending on the })osition or place the dog is to have in the team. The body harness is made of sealskin, with or without the hair on, stout canvas, or other material which may be convenient. Thin undressed sealskin makes the best harness, and is not so liable to chafe the neck of the animal. The tra<5e attached to each dog is generally of stout sealskin thong cut three-eighths of an inch wide, and the corners are carefully pared until the trace in form resembles a hooj) for a small keg. The ti'ace varies from 10 to 30 feet in length, and is att.ached to a longer but much stouter thong of heavier sealskin or walrus hide prepare<l in the form described for the trace. The thong to which all of the traces of variable lengths are fastened is termed the "bridle.'* The bridle has, usually, a piece of ivory, called "toggle,'' at the end farthest from the sled. A few inches back of the toggle is a short piece of stout thong plaited in the bridle end. This thong has a slit (uit in the farther end. It is passed through slits cut in the end of each trace and then looped on the toggle. It will now be understood that the traces all start from one place, but their diiferent lengths give different positions to the dogs of the team so that they may move freely among rough pieces of ice without interfering with eiich other. This has some advantages, but it necessitates watching the traces as they are liable to cat^^-h around any projection above the surface.

The bridles are also of varying lengths, from 16 to 40 feet. The rear end has two stout thongs plaited into it, forming a looj) for each thong. These are known as the *' yoke," and are loojied over toggles, one on each inner side of the runner.

Any load to be carried on the sled is usually placed so as not to project much over the side, for in deep snow, with a crust too weak to sup- port the weight, it would simply act as a drag and seriously impede travel if not entirely stop it. The load must also be distributed to the best advantage along the sled so as not to have too great a weight at either the front or rear, although generally a heavier portion is placed behind to allow the sled to steer or follow. The runners are so low

that the sled seldom apsets unless the ice is very rongb, in which case it often requires two men to attend to it, another to iree the traces AY>m obstnictioDS, and a fourth to lead or drive the dogs. A smaller number render traveling under such conditions very tedious.

The driver is always armed with a whip. {Fig. CO). There appear ■ to he as many kinds of whips as there are individuals using them. Each whip characterizes, in a manner, the person who makes it. A

Ftu. to. Dug whip.

great amount of ingenuity is expended in preparing the lash, which is simply indescribable. The handle of the whip is from 9 to U incli&s in length and shaped somewhat like the handle uf a swonl without the guard. A stout loop of thong is affixed to the stock above where the hand graspa it. This loop in thrown over the wrist to prevent the weight of the whip drawing the stock fnmi the hand and also to retain tbe whip when it is allowed to trail behind. At tbe farther end of the stock a portion of the wood is cut out to

TUBNEBl MANAGEMENT OP DOG TEAM. 245

allow the insortiou of the end of the lash which is fastened by means of finer thongs. The butt end of the lash is five-sixteenths of an inch thick and nearly 2 inches wide. It is composed of eight heavy thongs plaited in a peculiar manner, depending on the number of thongs used and the fancy of the maker. The thongs are plaited by inserting the end of each thong through a suc*.cession of slits cut at the proper distance and so matted together that it is difficult to determine the '^run" of the thong. The size decreases from the handle by dropping out a strand until at 18 inches from the stock only four thongs are left, and these form a sfjuare plait for a foot in length. This square form is succeeded by only two thongs which make a flat plait of 2 feet in length. At the end of this a simple piece of heavy thong completes the lash. The length of a whip may be as much as 35 feet, weighing 3 or 4 pounds. Some of the natives acx}uire a surprising dexterity with this formidable weapon, often being able to snip the ear of a particular dog at a distance of the length of the whip. I have known them to snap the head from a ptarmigan sitting along the path of the team. Children practice witli the whip as soon as they can manage it.

The Eskimo dog fears nothing but the whiplash. They attack each other with savage ferocity, and several dogs may be engaged in terrific battles, yet the swish of a whip or even a stick thrown hurtling through the air is sufficient to cause them to slink off in abject terror, whining piteously in fear of the expected lash.

The weight or load put upon a sled may be as much as 1,200 i>ounds. The character of the road alone determines the weight, number of dogs, and rate of travel. The latter may average over a smooth surface T) miles hourly for twelve hours continuously, excluding the few min- utes given the dogs to "blow" (rest), etc. I knew an instance where three men with empty sled and seven dogs traveled 94 miles in eighteen hours. I have gone 19 miles in three hours; and again I have known only 3 or 4 miles to be made in ten hours, through rough ice or deep, newly fallen snow.

The disposition and condition of the dogs chiefly determines the number attached to the sled. With these animals there is the same differ- ence as is to be found in horses or other beasts of draft. Some are energetic and well-behaved; others as stubborn or lazy as is possible. Strange dogs in the team are liable to be pitched upon by all the others and with the long traces ensues such an entanglement of lines, dogs, and flying snow as is difficult to conceive. The good qualities of the driver are manifeste<l by his ability in keeping the dogs in order and showing promptness in separating thein when quarreling. Fighting among the dogs can always be prevented bv the driver keeping the dogs in proper position.

24b THE HUDSON BAY ESKIMO.

WEAPONS AND OTHER HUNTING IMPLEMENTS.

These people are now providetl with AreamiH, wlii<:li iuive entirely

Hnperseded the how ana arrow. The how formerly use*! hi this region appears to have heen similar

to the one obtained from a party of East Main Tniiuit, who made their way to Fort Cliimo. This bow hus accordingly been figureil and do«o,rib«'d (FigB. 61 and ea— 90137).

It is made of larcb wood and lias a hacking ofeightdonble strands of twisted sinew. This sinew is in one piece sixteen times the length of the bow. One end is hmped anJ passed over one "nock" of the Iww and carried back and forth from nock to uock eight times. This backing lias two turns of twist put in from the middle to increase its elasticity, and is lashed to the middle of the bow with a stout tliong of reindeer skin. The bowstring is of twisted sinew with a loop at each end.

With this bow were seven aiTows. Three of these are for shooting reindeer and wolves. They have an iron point set in a short foreshaft of reindeer antler, and a wooden shaft about 16 inches long {Fig. 63). Tliree more are pointed with large nails, one of which has been beaten to a chisel-shaped point (Pigs. 64 aod 65). Tliey are intended for large game at short range, or for small game, such as hares and ptarmigan. These sis arrows are feathered with the tail feathers of the raven. The last arrow is a sim- tile shaft, without featliering or head, and is intended for small game, such as a wood hare crouching under a spruce tree, or the little i-ed squirrel on the top of a low tree.

In drawing the bow, the Innuit invariably hold the arrow between the middle two fingers of the right hand, and the string is drawn with all four fingers, and released by straightening tliem.

The bow and arrows are carried in bow case and quiver fastened together and slung

on the back. Fig. 66 represents a model (No. 32.57) of such a bow case. The bow case is made of buckskin and is of suftlcient length to con-

TtTKNER.]

HUNTING IMPLEMENTS,

tain tlio bow, excepting the extreme end, which is left projecting for convenience in handling. The case is tied around the bow at the projecting end. The quiver is attached to the bow case and contains two models of arrows for shooting large game. The arrows are tii)ped with leaf-shaped pieces of tin. Tlu^y are feathere<l with i)ortioii8 of feathers apparently taken from the tail of a raven. The mouth of the (juiver is also drawn up with a string to prevent the loss of arrows. I have not seen the Eskimo of Hudson stniit use such a cover for their bows and arrows, but the opportunities t4) observe them are very limited, as few are used. I am led to conclmle that only the poorer individuals of either locality liave the bow and arrow at the present day.

I have already described the large hariKHm used for striking white whales and large seals from the kaiak. A short-hea<l spear (Fig 67, No. 901G4) is used for diwspatching wounded seals or white whales, or for killing white whales when they have been driven into a shallow arm of the sea when the tide ebbs and leaves them ])artly uncovered. It has a short w<M)den shaft with a ferrule of ivory, holding a short ivory loose shaft, kept in place by thongs, on which is mounted a toggle head like that used on the big harpoon. The line is either attached to the kaiak or to a small float made of the inflated intestine or skin of a seal. The toggle heads for these si)eiirs are made of ivory, and fltted with iron blades (Fig. 68). I have already referre<l to the large sealskin float in describiug the kaiak.

Fig. 61) (No. 3531) is such a large sealskin float or a va tuk. The skin is removed firom the body by skinning anmnd the gums and <»arofully taking out all the flesh and bones through this orifice. As the operation pro- (•eeds the skin is turned back and at the ccmipletion of the work is inside out. The fl(»sh side, now the exterior, is carefully scraped to free it from all fleshy matter. The hind flippers are cut ott' at the ankle and the

skin either sewe<l or stoutly wrapped with FK,8.(n.64,and85._Arrowf.. Ewt thong. The fore flippers are usually lett at-

MalD Eftkimu.

THE HUDSON BAT ESKIMO.

tactie^ to the akin after tlie flesh has been ncraped firom ifaem. The shin is DOW inflated with sir and hung ap to dry. In a few hoars it is tamed with the hairy side oat and again inflated for awhile. The month and all other openings in the skin are careflilly sewed ap. A large button of ivory, shaped much like a pulley, nearly 2 inches in diameter, is put where the mouth of the Hkiu is and a iH>r- tion of the skin carpt'nlly wrapped around it, thoogs of sealskin tightening the moist skin in the groove of the mouthpiece. Thi^iiiecehas aholeaboutone-third of an inch in diameter bored through it. The hiud flippers and tail have a Htick of 2 or 3 inches in length plated within the skin and are then firmly bound aronndthe stick, which serves to stop up any hole and also to ftiniiHh a haudle by which to drag or hold the float. The hole in the mouthpiece is plugged with a stopper of wood. When the float is wanted for use the skin is inflated. When inflated the float has a diameter about two-thirds the length. If it is to be ff//.,-l| attached to a tracking line the float is fastened by the stick, which is secured within the skin of the hind flippers and dragged backwards. The function of the float in this instance is to prevent the tracking line from becoming "foaled" among the rocks and stones of the beacli along which the line runs in towing a boat (or umiak). In a similar manner it is affixed to the harpoon line used for large marine mammals, such as the white whale and the larger species of seals. This float not only retards the flight of the si>eared animal, but it serves to mark the spot where it sinks, for at certain seasons the seals sink as soon as they die. A speared animal alwiiys sinks more quickly than oue shot dead with a ball, probably because its struggles are more prolonged in the first instance and exhaustion of breath is more complete.

The hair -of the animal whose skin is intended for a float is sometimes scraped off before the skin is re moved flrom the body, otherwise it mny be left until the skin is partly dry and then be sliaved otf. The manner of looscniug the hair is similar to that usetl ^iM^in^XiZ^ 'jy butchers of hogs, only that the boiling water is poured on and a small patch of hair pulledoflfata time, instead of submerging the entire animal. The hair from the green skin must be carefully pulled oat or else the black scurf adhering will be detached and thus lender the skin less nearly waterproof. The skins or bags used for holding oil and fat are prepared in a siml}<

TDB»«.J HUNTING. 249

tiar mnnner, exccptuig that the hair is left on the skin and the hairy Hide left within. The oil and fat aropntin the ttkinatthepottt^^riorend and it in then ti^l up like a float. The largest oealskins are u»ed for oilhags, and may contain as nuicb as 300 pounds of f'jit or oil.

When a sack of oil i» sold the bag is uRually retnrned to the seller, w)io again filln it with oil or converts the skin into bootlegs or soles. The leather Imving become tboniiiglily ini]>regnated wi the oil makej^ the l>est for wear, often resisting nioistiint for three or four days of continuoiis wet.

Before leaving the subject of weapons and their aceessories, I may nmn- tion No. -iWiit, a small iiouch vtu*\e of ! tluck sealnkin. The shape is soiiiewljat like tliat of a leg of mutton. This is used for eunying gun caps. The neck is only large enough to i>ennit one cap to fall out at a time.

HUNTINO.

no. «T.-Hui.l ■ix'^r fDrkOllDK-Mlornai

I have already referred briefly to the " ' " Z*™ *

various methods of titking seals, white whules, and other game, while describing the boats, spears, and other a])i>aratuH used in their pursuit.

The most imiH>rtant hunt of the yi-iir, however, comes in the uutaum, when the reindet^r are migrating in large herds and crossing the rivers. The deer are wanted now for their flesh for food and their skins for (clothing. Kv<Tything lUH^essary for the chase in taken in the umiak, or, perliaps, a whaleboat, to a locality convenient to where the animals cross over. Hero the teut is pitched, and a camp is made. The hunters scour the neighboring land for herds of reindeer, which are seen running about under the impulse to seek the opi>osite sex. As they aixivo fn>in different directions, those of one sex must cross the river. Since the females ftirnish the hghter skins for clothing, and tho males the greater amount of meat and a heavier skin for various purposes, deer of both sexes are equally useful.

A band of throe, or four, or as many as a hundred, may t>e sighted slowly winding their way through the openings of the timbered areas on tho opposite side of the river. The native with telescope, or binocular in focus, observes their movements until they piuise a moment on the bank and then plunge quickly into the water, wliere they keep well together until the opi>osite shore is reached. Here, if undisturbed, they will stand to allow the wat*ir to dri]) from their bodies, and then will walk slowly along to a convenient phtce to climb the bauk and

penetrate tlio strip o try beycjud. As soo

f woo<)k (>r biishea and emerge, into tbe open codqa as the native sees the deer everything is pnt in readiness on the kaiak, and with qoifk strokes of the double-bladed paddle he is behind and belon- the now terrified animals. They rear aud plunge in frantic confnsion. endeavoring to escujie ttieir most dreaded foe. The }iiinter calmly drives the herd through tlie wab^r as the shepherd does his flock on land. Those disposed to break away are rounded up aud driven back. Tlie greatest care mnst Iw exercised not to let the animals get below the kaiiik, or tliey will swim faster with the stream than the hunter can padille. As there are, generally, two or more kaiaks, it is an easy matter for the men to drive the animals wherever they desire. When the camp is above, the deer are driven dtag- .onaliy aeross so as to make them come out near the camp. If the site is below, the animals are allowed to drop down to a convenient place. These maneuvers depend on the wind, as tbe sense of smell of the de«r is very at'ute at this season, and the scent of the camp, if detected, would throw the animals into sneh terror that the greater number would escape..

Fia. M.-SMlikln (lo»t.

When near the place the hunter takes his deer sjiear, which isesactly like the one used by the Indians, and quietly stabs the animal iu a

TURNER. 1

HUNTING DEER. 251

vital spot, endeavoring so to wound the beast that it will have only enough strength to enable it to attain the shallow water or shore, and not to wander off. Among the hundreds of times I have had the opportunity to witness this, I never knew a deer wounded with the spear to turn back to swim in the direction from which it wime. They appear to dread the water, and strive most frantically to regain the land where, if mortally wounded, they stand; the limbs gradually diverging to sustain their trembling body; the eyes gazing piteously at the foe, who often mocks their dying struggles, or pitches a stone at their quivering legs to make them fall. A convulsive struggle as the blood fills the internal cavity, a sudden i)itch, and the life is gone without sigh or groan. As many of the herd as can be speared are <piickly dis])atched and the entire number secured if possible. It is supposed that the ones which return to the shore whence they came give the alarm and frighten other arrivals away from the starting ])oint. The hunters strive to prevent their return, and will often allow two, near the camp, to escai)e in order to pursue the retrc^ating animal.

Those which have been killed and are lying in the water are dragged on land and skinned. The pelt is taken off as thiit of a be<^f is when skinned by a butcher. The ears and the skin of the head are left on. The body is opened and the viscera are removed. The intestines are freed from the fat; the stomach is cleanse<l of the greater portion of its contents, and the blood which collected within the cavity is scooi)ed up with the hands and ladled into that receptiicle; and both are reserved for food. The heart and liver are taken to the camp, where they help to form a variety in the animal food of these people. Other portions of the flesh are also consumed. The sinew, which lies along the lumbar region just below the superficial muscles, is ex])osed by a cut, and with the point of a knife or tip of the finger loosened from its adherent flesh. One end, usually the forward end, is detached and a stout thong tied to it, and it is jerked from its attachment by a vigorous pull. It requires a strong i)erson to remove this tendon from the body of a lean animal. A stroke of the knife frees the wide layer of sinew from blood and particles of flesh. This is now laid aside for awhile, then washed to free it from the blood, which would stain it dark in color and also tend to diminish the strength of the fibers by rotting them. It is now spread out and allowed to dry. The body is cut across the small of the back and laid aside. The head is severed from the neck and discarded if there be no portion of the horns which is needed to serve some purpose, such as a handle for a knife or other tool. If the head be that of a y(mng deer it is often taken to the (^amp and put into a pot and boiled in the condition in which it comes from the field. When cooked for a long time it becomes very soil; the muscles of the jaw being reduced to a semigelatinous condition, whit^h makes an excellent article of food.

The tongue is invariably taken out entire, and is considered the

jin^atest delicacy, either frozen, raw or cooked, or dried and smoked. In faot a tongue from the reindeer is good at any time or condition.

The hiud([iiarters are seldom separated, but are placed within the tUoraeie cavity, and either cached near the scene of slaughter or placed iui the kaiak and taken to a spot where others are deposited from which supplies may be taken when the food for the winter is required.

llei^ and there along the bank will be placed the body of a single (leer, sometimes two or three, which have been killed too far from the present camp for the hunter to bring them home. These spots are unu*ked or remembered by some visible surrounding, lest the deep snows of winter obscure the locality, and often the place can not be found when wanted. The cache in which the flesh is deposited is simply a few stones or bowlders laid on the ground and the meat put ui)on them. A rude sort of wall is made by piling stones upon the meat until it is hidden from the ravages of ravens, gulls, foxes, wolves and the detested wolverine.

As soon as the hunter considers that the deer of that particular lo<».ality have ceased to cross, he will repair to another station and go through the same process. The de^r which are first slain, when the hunting seas^ni arrives, and the weather is still so warm that the flies and decomposition ruin the meat, are reserved for supplies of dog food.

MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS.

I have already, in the earlier pages of this paper, referred to various tools and implements.

In ad<lition to these, the Koksoagmyut have comparatively few tools.

In former ages stone and ivory were fashioned into crude implements for the purposes which are now better and more quickly served by instruments of iron or steel.

These people have now been so long in more or less direct contact with traders who have supplied them with these necessaries that it is rare to find one of the knives used in former times. Certain ox)erations, however, are even to this day better performed with a knife made of ivory. The ice from the kaiak bottom or the sides of the boat may best be removed by means of an ivory knife, resembling a snow knife but shorter. The steel knife is always kept sharp and if so used would, on the unyielding, frozen skin-covering of those vessels, quickly cut a hole. The Eskimo living remote from the trading stations use a snow knife made from the tusk of a walrus or the main stem of the reindeer antler.

That steel or iron is deemed an improvement on the former materials from which cutting instruments were made is shown by the crude means now employed. If the person has not a knife an unused spearhead, having an iron point, is often employed instead for skinning ani- mals and dressing the skins.

Stone heads for weapons of all kinds have been discarded. Ivory

■luwiEB.) MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS. 253

spear8 are at times used but these only wbeu tlie huiihT in close tu the prey.

Some of the men have acquired considerable skill in fnshioniug iron into the required shape. They eagerly stand aronnd anyone who may be at work, and evince the greatest curiosity in anything new.

The collection coutains two of the snow knives referred tti above. No. 3067 is a large snow knife, made from the lower portion of the main stem of the horn of the male reindeer. It is simply half of the split horn with the middle scooped out. The length is 12 inches. Tliis form of instrument is used more esi)ecially to smooth down the inequali- ties of the block.s of snow after being placed in position. No. 3140 (Fig. 70) is a large snow knife uia«1e of walrus ivory. It is 13 inches long aud nearly 2 inches wide for the greater part of the bln<le, which terminates in a ronn<led point. The instrument liu!< two edges, and in ! general appearances rewembleM a double-edged liomau sword. The liaudle is cnt t<) fit to the hand.

Among other peculiar implements colk^sted is one represented in Fig. 71 (No. SihW), which is a " back-scratcher." Tbi.s instrument consists of a shaft made from a limb of a larch tree. It is 17 inches long and about threefnnrths of an inch through, tJatteucd to less than half an inch aud t»i>ering toward the end to be held in the hand. Ou the lower end is a dish-shaped plec* i>f reinder horn, two aud one-eighth inches long and seven-eightlis of Kn»™"knif^ an inch wide. Through the center of the o >.uiismjui. pjg(jg yf horn an oblong hole has been cut for the insertion of the shaft or handle. The e<lges of the Iiont piece are shari) as can be made. Tliis piece is onethird of an inch tlUck, aud having the sharp edge up is convenient for thrusting down the back to scratclt one's self in places where the hand could not reach on iiccount of thick deerskin clothing. The Eskimo name of the instrument is ku-ni4-u-tik, or that which removes lice.

The steel needles obtained from tlie traders are kept in a little ivory receptacle of various shapes, two of which ''«™lrb^" ko"- are shown in Figs. 72 and 73. BoagmjuL

This is hollow uud tilled with any sphagnum moss. One end is permanently closed by a wooden or ivory plug, held in by little pegs. The plug iu the other end is easily taken out. The needle case is usuaUy

pierced to receive a loop liy wbich it may be Lung to tbe belt or the workbag. ^Needles are also kept in a kind of small cushion (Fig. 74] made of

sealskin, elaborately ornamented witli beu^ls HUd stuffed with Bphupfnam mioBB. The cushion Is perlbrated around tbe edge to receive the ueedlcs, vliit'bwould not easily go through the tough skin. Accompany tug one of these needle cushions in the collection is one of the old-fasbioueil tbimbles such as are still used, although metal thimbles are iireferrcd. It is simply a xtrip of seidskiu sewed into a ring large enough t^) fit the foretinger, and is usually at-

F.a.7*.-S«l.ktan«dleoa.hi™.*Hhthln.ble. K»k™g»y«l. j^^.^^,^^ ^^ ^^^ j,^^,^

cushion by a thong with an ivory toggle on the end, to prevent the thimble from slipping off.

Suiidl articles used in sewing, such as scraps of skiD, needle cases, sinewthresid, thimbles, et«^, are carried in sma'l bags of deerskin, which are often elaborately ornamented with beads of various colors, like the specimen in tbe collection. No. 3047.

AUt'HEMBNTS.

Notwithstanding the fact that these people have had their lot cast upon the frozen shores of the sea, they appear happy and contented and loath to leave the laud of their birth. Although it is a constant

straggle amidst the terrible storms of a region where for eight months in the year the soil is frozen and the few warm days of summer bring forth a scanty vegetation, yet so strong is their love for these inhospitable shores that the absent pine for a return and soon lose their hold on life if they are not able to do so.

During the intervals between the hunts and when food is still plentiful, the Eskimo divert themselves with games of various kinds of their own. They are also quick to adopt other games which require out4loor exercise.

Football calls out everybody, from the aged and bent mother of a numerous family to the toddling youngster scarcely able to do more than waddle under the burden of his heavy deerskin clothes. Wrestling among the men is indulged in for hours at a time. The opponents remove all their superfluous garments, seize each other around the waist and lock hands behind each othei^'s backs. The feet are spread widely apart and each endeavors to draw, by the strength of the arms alone, the back of his opi)oneut into a curve and thus bring him off his feet. Then with a lift he is quickly thrown flat on his back. The fall must be such that the head touches the ground. Where the contestants are nearly matched the struggle may continue so long that one of them gives up from exhaustion. The feet are never used for tripping. Such a procciliire would soon cause the witnesses to stop the struggle.

Tlio Eskimo and Indians often engage in comparative tests of their strength in wrestling. The Eskimo prove the better men in these engagements. Throwing stones at a mark is a si>ort for the younger men, some of whom acquire surprising dexterity.

If a pack of playing-cards can be obtained they engage in games which they have learned from the white people and teiu»Ji each other. Small stakes are laid on the result of the game. The women api)ear to exhibit a greater passion for gambling than the men do. They will wager the la«t article of clothing on their persons till the loser ai)i>ears in a nude w)ndition before si)ectiitors. Then the winner will usually return at least a part of the clothing, with an injun(*tion to play more and lose less.

The young girls often play the game of taking an object and secreting it within the closed hand. Another is called vldou to guess the con- tents. She makes in<iuiries as to the size, color, etc., of the object. From the answers she gradually guesses what the thing is.

A favorite game, something like cup and ball, is played with the following implements: A piece of ivory is shax)ed into the form of an elongate cone and has two deep notches or steps cut from one side (Fig. 75). In the one next the base are bored a number of small holes and one or two holes in the upper step. The apex has a single hole. On the opposite^ side of the base two holes are nmde obliquely, that they will meet, and through them is threaded a short piece of thong. To the other end of the thong is attached a peg of ivory, about 4 inches

long. The game is that the person holdiog the plaything shall, by a

dextrous swing of the ball, catch it upon the ivory peg held in the hand.

The person engages to catch it a certaiQ number of times in succession,

and on failure tu do so allows the opponent totry her S skill. The skull of I a hare is often substituted for the ivory "ball," and a few perforations arc made iu the walls of the skull to receive the i>eg.

It requires a great amount of practice to cat«b the ball, as tlio string is

BO short that one must be quick to thrust the peg in before it describes

the |>art of a small circle. The children sometimes use a stick or other sharp-pointed instrument

to make a series of straight Hues iu the newly fallen snow and at the

same time repeat certain gibberish. This was at first very confusing

to me, but a woman repeated the words

and I gucsse'l from her description

where the idea sprang from.

These people liad heard of the teachings of the Labrador missionaries (Mo- ravians), all of whom are Germans,

and as the Eskimo of that coast use

the German numerals in preference to

their own^ tlie natives of that region

have at some time repeated the names

of those numerals to certain of the i

Hudson strait people and they have 1

taught each other. The names of the German numerals

as sounded by the Koksoagniyut are

n» follows. The numbers are one to

fifteen, consecutively: Ai i; chu v4i i; ta Kii i; pi H' la; pi

li pi; ts^k si; ts^ pa; ^k ta; u^i na;

ts^ na; ^ hi piik; chu v&i Iu puk; ta

lak si na ; pi fik' si na, and pi lip' si na. 1 have already referred to the game

of football as played by these people.

Fig. 76 represents the football {No. .3070) and the whip for driving

it. The Eskimo are v(!ry fond of tliis game. All the people of every

age, from the toddling infant to the aged female with bended back, love

TO»K«.1 GAMES. 257

to urge the ai uk toi'ik, as the ball is terniBd. The size of the ball varies from 3 to 7 iiicheH in diameter. They have not yet arrived at perfei'tioti iu making a spherical form for the ball, but it is often an appio shape. It is made by takinj; a piece of bu(^kskin, or sealskin, and cutting it into a circular form, tlieu gathering the edges and otuttiug tlie cavity witii dry moBs or feathers. A circnlar piece of skill is then inserted to till the spivce which is left by the incontplet<^ gatherings. This ball is very light and is driven either bya blow Irom the foot or else by a whip of pe<;uliai' construction. This whip consists of a handle of wo<h1 8 to 12 inches in length. To prevent it from slipping out of the hand when the blow is struck, a stout thong of sealskin is made into the form of a long loop which is piiKsed over the hand and tightens around the wrist. To the farther end of the wliiphandleare attached a number of stout thongs of heavy se^ilskin. These thongs have their ends tied around the tiandle and thus form a number of htopsof 13 to 2U inches in length. These are then tied together at the bottom in oi-der to give them greater weight when the ball is struck by them. A lusty Eskimo will often send the ball over a hundred yards through the air with such force as to knock a i)erson down.

At Fort Ghimo the game is played during the lato winter afteniooDS when the temperature is 30^ or 40° below zero. It is exciting and vigorous play where a large crowd joins in the game.

Sometimes the ball is in the form of two irregular hemisikheres joined together, making a sphere which can be rolled only in a certain direction. It is very awkward and produces much confusion by its erratic oonrse. Nos. 3461, 3287, and 3460 are footballs of the pattern first described.

The Innuit who r^mo from the western end of Hudson strait, the socalle<l "Northerners," have a game which they play with sets of pieces of ivory cut into irregular shapes, and marked on one face with spots arranged in different patterns {Fig. 77). The number of pieces in a set varies from 60 to 148, The name of the set is A ma zn' a lit, and somewhat resembles our game of dominoes.

The game is played in the following manner : Two or more persons, 11 ETH 17

according to the number uf pieces in the set, ait down and pile the jtirces bufora them. One of the players mixes the pieces togetlier in plain view of the otber». Whea this is done he calls them to take the pieces. Each person endeavors to obtain a half or third of the number if there be two or ttiree players. The one who mixed uptbe pieces lays down a piece and calls hia opponent to match it with a piece liaving a simi- lar design If this can not be done by any of the players the first has to match it and the gime continne-s until one of the persons has exhausted all of the pieces taken byhim. The pieces are designed in pairs, having names such as Ka init'i tik (sled), Kaiak (canoe), kale sak (navel), A ma znt (many), a tall aik (1), MA kok (2), Pfng a sut (3), Si t& mat (4), and Ta li mat (o). Kat^h of the 1 imes above must be mat'Llied with a piece of simiHr kind, although the other end of the piece may be of a diferent design. A Kam utik may be matched with an Amaznt if the latter has not a line or bar cut iu^roas • it; if it has the bai must l>o matched with an Amazut.

Fio. T8-K.kim« rtoll. m«u. -j.,, j^ ^.j^^ j^ kuOWn

to the iieople of the Uiigava district, but those only who have learned it from the Northerntrs are able to play it. The ]iorthern Eskimo stake the last article they [wssess on the issue of the game. Their wives are disposed of temporaiil>, and often are totally relinquished to the victor I have heard that the wives so disposed of often sit down and win themselves back to their former owners.

The little girls play with dolls like civilizul children, and build little snow huta, where they have all their playthings and play at keei>ing house. The collection contains eleven dolls, most of them elaboratoly and a(^cnrat«Iy dressed, as ^"•■''i shown by the illustrations (Figs. 78, 79, 80, 81) and 1( doll clothing.

The only musical instrument whicli I observeil among these people

U'ge ijuaiitities of

was a violin of ttieir own niannttu;tura, nia<1c!, of (;<nirHe, in inritatiou

of tliose tbey had seen used by tlie whiter. Its form is siifflcit-ntly

well Hhowu by the figure {Fig. 82), and is

made of birch or .spruco, and the two

strings are of (;oarse, loosely twisted siuew.

The bow lia« a strip of whalebone in place

of horsehair, and is resined with spruce

gum. This fiddle is held across the lai>

when played.

The old woman of | whom I procured the i instniment was able to I play several airs — such they sing among themselves. I was surprised at the facility I with wliieh she niude the various notes on such a crude imitation of a violin.

Art is but sliglitly

developed among these

pe<tple. Their weapons

aud other implements

are never iidorue<l with

carvings of animals

and other natural ob-

-EKki^iTdoU. jcfts or with convenwoman. tioual patterns, aa is

the va.'<c in so great a degree among the Ksktmo of Alaska. Tbey are,

however, not devoid of artistic skill, as is shown by the good taste

(»n«n exhibited in the trimmingof their garments, and also by the dolls, which I liave already referred to and figured.

THE HUDSON HAY ESKIMO.

Tlie L-nlluctioii also routaiiiN sever possess eou»iderable iirtiHtic merit.

[il Kiiiall ivory carvings, which Among tlietw, the small objects, (Fig, 8;t), collected from tlie Bo-citllcd Nortlieniera, represent various wiiterfowl cut from |iiuces of walrus ivoiy. ThevarioiiH K]»e‹aeH thus carved ai-e lo«›i)8, (lucks, geuKe, sea pigeons, and inurreM. Oiu^ repi-esents a female i?ider with two young momiteil upon her hack. It is readily discerned, in most instance^ what position and lustion of the bird was tnteuded to 1)6 represented. The last kIiows iu the plainest possible manner that the loou i» just starting to swim from an object which has given it alann.

These carvings are fashioued

from the tusks of the walrus or

the teeth of various large maninials, and are simply tests of the

skill of the worker, who jnepares

them as toys for the ehildren.

Notwithstandiog the assertions

of others, who claim t^i have

Fw.ai.— Bird* inrvr-d III ii-urj'. knowledge of it, I must state

that on no occasion liave I seen or heard, while among these people, of

these objects being used iu any game.

In adilition to these wc have a very ai'tistic figure of a jmlar bear, and two human flgm-es, 1} inches long (Fig. Hi), representing tattooed wo- UH-u, and two i-arvings representing bags of oil.

Like all other Eskimo, the Koksoagmyut are exceedingly fond of story- telling. Sitting in the hut, engaged in their evening work, the old men tell what they have seen and Phi. MAHiiman flpire. c«r.-«i in ivorj . iicard, Tlic oM womeu relate tlie history of the pe«i»Ie of former days, dejieuding entirety on memory, often interspersed with recitations apparently Ibreign to tlie thread of the

TUBNEH.1 FOLK LORE. 2fil

legend. The younger members sit with staring eyes and countenances wliich show their wondering interest in the narration. Far into the night the droning tcme of her voice continues reciting the events of the past until one by one the listeners drowsily drop to sleep in the i)ositioii they la^^t assumed.

I was fortunately able to collect a number of these ancient legendary stories, some of them of considerable length.

Origin of the Innuit. — A man was create<l from nothing. It was dummer and he journeyed until he found a woman in another land. The two became man and wife, and from them sprang all the i)eople dwelling there. [ It is extremely difficult to get the native to go beyond the immediate vicinity in which he lives while relating these stories and legends. They invariably maintain tlmt it was *<here" that the event took place.]

The Coming of the White People. — ^Tlie Eskimo were on the verge of starvation and had eaten neiirly all their food. They saw that in a few more days death would come. The greatest Tungaksoak or great Tung ak determined to bring relief and i>rophesied that people having light hair and white skins would come in an immense fimiak. He place<l a young pui)])y on a chip and another on an old sealskin boot, and set them adrift on the water. The pupi)ies drifted in different directions, and in the course of time the one on the chip returned and brought with it the Indians. A long time after that, when the people had nearly forgotten the other puppy, a strange white object like an iceberg came dire<?tly toward the shore. In a few moments the puppy,, now a man, announced that the people had come with many curious things in their vessel. The man immediately became a dog.

Origin of living thingH on the earth a7id in the water. — A long time ago a man who was cutting down a tree observed that the chips continued in motion as they fell from the blows. Those that fell into the wat«r became t\w inhabitants of the water. Those that fell on the land became the various animals and in time were made the food of mankind. (This was the version given me by a person living at Fort Chimo.) Another person from farther west gave the following account of the origin of the living things of the earth : Previous to a time when water covered the earth the people lived on such food as they could always find prepared for them in abundance. They did not know of any animals at that time on the land or in the water. The water finally went away and the seaweeds became tre^s, shrubs, bushes, and grass. The long seaweeds wen^; the trees and the smaller kinds became the bushes ^and grass. The grass, however, was in some manner put in various places by a walrus at a later date than the appearance of the trees.

A woman who had lost her husband lived among strangers. As they desired to change the ])laceof their habitation, they resolved to journey to another point of laiul at a distance. The woman who was dei)ending on charity ha<l become a burden of which they wished to rid themselves.

So tliey put all their belongings into the umiak and when they were on the way they seized the woman and cast her overboard. She struggled to regain the side of the boat, and when she seized it, the others cut ott' her fingers which fell into the water and changed to seals, walrus, whales, and white bears. The woman in her despair, screamed her determination to have revenge for the cruelty perpetrated upon her. The thumb became a walrus, the first finger a seal, and the middle finger a white bear. When the former two animals see a man they try to escape lest they be served as the woman was.

The white bear lives both on the land and in the sea, but when he perceives a man revengeful feelings fill him, and he determines to destroy the person who he thinks mutilated the woman from whose finger he si>rang.

Origin of the guillemots. — While some children were playing on the level top of a high cliff overhanging the sea, the older children watched the younger ones lest they should fall down the bluff. Below them the sea was covered with ice, and the strip along the shore had not yet loosened to permit the seals to approach. Soon afterward a wide crack opened and the water was filled with seals, but the children. did not observe them. The wind was cold, and the children romped in high glee, encouraging each other to greater exertion in their siK)rts and shouted at the top of their voices. The men saw the seals and hastened to the shore to put their kaiaks into the water to pursue them. At this the children increased their shouts, which frightened the seals till they dived out of sight. One of the men was angry, and exclaimed to the others, '*I wish the cliff would topple over and bury those noisy children for scaring the seals." In a moment the cliff tipped over and the poor children fell among the fragments of huge rocks and stones at the bottom. Here they were changed into guillemots or sea-pigeons, with red feet, and even to this day they thus dwell among the debris at the foot of cliffs next to the water of the sea.

Origin of the raven. — The raven was a man, who, while other people were collecting their household property preparatory to removing to another locality, called to them that they had forgotten to bring the lower blanket of deerskin used for a bed. This skin in the Eskimo language is called kak. The man used the word so often that they told him to get it himself. He hurried so much that he was (^hanged into a raven, and now uses that sound for his note. Even to this day when the camp is being removed the raven flies over and shouts '*Kak! kak!" or, in other words, "Do not forget the blanket."

Origin of the quadrangular spots on the loon'^s back. — A man had two* children that he wished might resemble each other. He painted the one (loon) with a white breast and square spots on the back. The other (raven) saw how comical the loon appeared, and laughed so much that the loon became ashamed and escaped to the water, where it always presents its white breast in order to hide the spots of the back

TURNEB.1 FOLK LORE. 263

wliicb caused ao much ridicule. The raven eluded the attempt to be painted in like inanuer, and stoutly refusinl to come near.

Orujin of the fpills. — Some people in a boat desired to ^o around a point of land wliich |)rojected far into the water. As the water there was always in a violent commotion under the end of the point which ti^rminated in a higli cliff some of the women were requested to walk over the neck of hind. One of them j(ot out with her children in order to lighten the boat. Slie was directed to go over the place, and they promised to wait for her on the other side. The people in the boat had gone so far that their voices, giving the direction, became indistinct. The poor woman became confused and suspect^nl they wante<l to desert her. Slie remained about the cliff, constantly crying the last words she heard. She ultimately changed into a gull, and now shouts only the sound like "//o orer, goover^ ovevy ore,'- etc.

Origin of the hawks, — Among the people of a village was a woman who was nottnl for the shortness of her neck. She wjus so constantly teased and tormented about it that she often sat for hours on the edge of high pliujes. She changed into a hawk, and now wheu she sees anyone she immediately exclaims, *'Kea! kea! kea! who, who, who was it that cried 'short neck!'"

Origin of the Hicalloic. — Some small children, who were extraordinarily wise, were playing at building toy houses on the edge of a high cliff near the village in which they dwelt. They were envied for their wisdtmi, and to them was given the name ^'Zulugagnak,'' or, like a raven, whi(;h was supposed to know all the past and future. While these children were thus amusing themselves they were changed into small birds, which did not forget their last occupaticm, and even to this day tliey come to the cliffs, near the camps of the people, and build houses of mud, which they allix to the side of the rock. Even the raven does not molest them, and the Eskimo children love to watch the swallow build his iglugiak of nuid.

The hare, — The luire w^as a child who was so ill treated and abused by the otht»r jieople, because it had long ears, that it went to dwell by itself. When it sees anyone the ears are laid down on the back, for, if it hears the slumt of a person, it thinks they are talking of its long ears. It has no tail, because it did not formerly have one.

The tcolf was a poor woman, who had so many children that she could not lind enough for them to eat. They became so gaunt and hungry that they were change<l into wolves, constantly roaming over the land seeking food. The cry of the mother may be heard as she strives to console her hungry children, saying that food in plenty will soon be found.

Lire are supi)osed to drop from the body of a huge spirit, dwellin|7^ in the regions above, who was [)unished by having these pests con stantly torment him. In his rnge to free himself the lice dropped down upon the people who condemned him to this punishment.

Origin of mosquitoes. — ^A man had a wife who was negligent and failed to scrape his skin clothing properly when he returned from his exx)editions. He endeavored to persuade her to mend her ways and do as a wife should do. She was again directed to remove the accumulated layer of dirt from the man's coat. She i>etulantly took the garment and cleaned it in such a slovenly way that when the husband discovered the condition of the coat he took some of the dirt from it and flung it after her. The particles changed into mosquitoes, and now (in spring), when the warm days come and the women have the labor of cleaning clothes to perform, the insects gather around them, and the women are thus reminded of the slovenly wife and what befel her.

Story of the man and his fox wife. — A hunter who lived by himself found when he returned to the place after an absence that it had been visited and everything put in order as a dutiful wife should do. This happened so often with no visible signs of tracks that the man determined to watch and see who would scrape his skin clothing and boots, hang them out to dry, and cook nice hot food ready to be etiten when he returned. One day lie went away as though going off on a hunt, but secreted himself so as to observe the entrance of anything into the house. After a while he saw a fox enter. He suspected that the fox was after food. He quietly slipped up to the house and on entering saw a most beautiful woman dressed in skin clothing of wondrous make. Within the house, on a line, hung the skin of a fox. The man inquired if it was she who had done these things. She replied that she was his wife and it was her duty to do them, hoping that she had performed her labor in a manner satisfactory to him. •

Aft^r they hjid lived together a short time the husband detected a musky odor about the house and inquired of her what it was. She replied that she emitted the odor and if he was going to find fault with her for it she would leave. She dashed off her clothing and, resuming the skin of the fox, slipped quietly away and hjis never been disposed to visit a man since that time.

The following is a story obtained from Labrador:

The rivals, — Between two men there existed keen rivalry. Each asserted himself to be the stronger and endeavored to prove himself superior to the other. One of them declared his ability to form an island where none had hitherto existed. He picked up an immense rock and hurled it into the sea where it became an island. The other, with his foot, pushed it so hard that it landed on the top of another island lying far beyond. The mark of the footprint is visible to this day, and that place is now known as Tu kik' tok.

The jealous man, — A man fell in love with two women and was so jealous of them that he would not permit them to look upon others, much less speak to them. The women Anally wearied of the restrictions placed upon them and resolved to desert the man. They fled along the coast until they were faint from hunger. At length they

came upon the body of a whale cast on the shore. Here they determined to dwell for a time. The man sought for the women in every I)08sible place with no success. A conjurer was consulted, and after much deliberation, he told the deserted man to journey to a place where he would find the carcass of a whale and to secrete himself in the vicinity and watch for the women. lie stiirt«d out accordingly and before long had the plciisure of seeing the two women. They detected the man hastening toward them and tried to secrete themselves until he should get by. He seized one of them, however, and bound her with thongs. The other was less disposed to submit, and the man put out her eyes to deprive her of the privilege of looking at any man. They remained about that locality for some time, and various animals of the land came to the carcass to feast upon the remains. The man caught a great number of foxes and other valuable furs and aft^r a time returned to the camp whence he came.

Story of the orphan hoy, — A small boy, who had neither father, mother, nor any living relatives, was dwelling with some people who maltreated him in every way their fancy could suggest. He jiras kept in the entry way to the hut, like a dog, and was permitted to eat only of the skin of walrus when they had it to give him. At other times they would throw to him what they themselves wouhl not eat. They forbade him to have a knife with which to cut his food, and he was com- pelled to gnaw the bones like a dog. A little girl, the dfiughter of the head of the family with whom he lived, would secretly take to him a knife with which to divide the tough skin of the walrus. She also carried food of better quality to him when she could do so clandestinely. These kind attentions pleased him very much, and made him long for an opportunity to escape. But how was he to better his condition when the hand of everybody was raised against him on account of his treatment at home! The little girl who had so often befriended him could not assist him to escape from such a life. lie endeavored to lay a plan, but it came to naught. There seeme<l no help for him. One night he abandoned all hope and threw himself on the ground in despair. While there he gazed at the bright moon, and the more intently his gaze was fixed upon it the more he thought he discerned the face of a man in it, and at last he cried to the man to cx)me and help him escape from his miserable life. Tlie man ciime down from the moon and gave the poor boy a frightful beating, but the more he was beaten the larger he seemed to grow. After awhile he became so strong that he could handle a large rock as easily as he had hitherto handled a little stone. A large, round bowlder from the beach was no more to him than a bullet held in the hand of a strong man.

The moon man then told the boy that he was large enough to take care of himself and do as he pleased with the i)eople who ha<l treated him so badly. With this the two parted, and the moon man went to his hole in the sky, while the lM)y walked along the besu*.h picking up

rocks and tossing them iilon<>; tbe shore until the character of the water's edge was entirely changed. When the boy arrived at the hut it was daylight, for he had tarried so long on the beac^li testing his strength that the night had slipiM^d away.

The people were terrified when they saw to what enormous proportions the abused boy had grown. He became frenzied the instant ho saw his former persecutors, and seizing first one and then the other in his hands dashed them against the rocks. The blood and brains ran in streams. One of the men, seeing his doom, begged for his life and j)romistHl his kaiak, spears, sled, and wife if he should be spared. The enraged boy continued the slaughter until only the little gii*l who had so often befriended him was left. She became his wife, and in the ciiurse of a few hours the man, whose name was Kou j^'^ yuk, became of a natural size again and i)assed his life in comfort.

This story was obtained from a man from Labnulor. The Eskimo assert that this occurred near Ohak (often pronounced Okak), now a missicmary station. They show the rock, which a little imagination gives the appearance of having dried blood and brains still upon it.

The origin of the Hun^ moony and stars, — At a time when darkness covered the earth a girl was nightly visited by some one whose identity she could not discover. She determined to find (mt who it could be. She mixed some soot with oil and painted her breast with it. The next time she dis<»overed, to her horror, that her brother had a black circle of m>ot around his mouth. Slie upbraided him and he denied it. The father and mother were very angry and scolded the pair so severely that the son fled from their presence. The daughter seized a brand from the fire and jmrsued him. He ran to the sky to avoid her but she flew after him. The man changed into the moon and the girl who bore the torch became the sun. The sparks that flew from the brand became the stars. The sun is constantly pursuing the moon, which keeps in the darkness to avoid Ijeing discovered. When an eclipse occurs they are snpjKised to meet.

Auroras. — Auroras are believed to be the torches held in the hands of spirits weking the souls of those who have Just died, to lead them over tlie abyss terminating the edge of the world. A narrow pathway leads across it to the land of brightness and i>lenty, where disease and jmin are no more, and wlH»re food of all kinds is always ready in abundance. To this place mme but the dead and the raven can g&. When the s[Mrits wish to communicate with the people of the earth they make a whistling noise and the earth ]MM)ple answer only in a whisi>ering tone. The Eskimo say that tliey are able to call the aurora and converse with it. Theys4*nd messages to the dead through these spirits.

The sky. — The sky is supjK>sed to l>e an immense d(mu\ of haixl matei ial, reared' over the earth, long from east to west and shorter from north t4> south. Tlie e<lges of the land and sea are bonndinl by high, preiipitous sides, shelving oatwanl or sloping inwanl to pnnent anything living on the earth from going to the region beyond. There is the source of light and hejit. The dome of the sky is very cold, and at times covered with crystals of frost wliich fall in the form of snow or frost films t4> the earth, and then the sky becomes clear. The clouds are supposetl to be large bags of water, controlled by two old women who run with them across the sky, and as the water escapes from the seams it falls in the form of rain to the earth. The thunder is their voice and the lightning is their t4>rch. If a spark falls from this on anyone he dies and goes to the region above.

The icincbf. — At each of the corners of the earth there dwells an immense but invincible S])irit, whose head is many times larger than all the remainder of his body. When he breathes the wind blows and his breath is felt. Some breathe violent storms and others gentle zephyrs. Tiie male spirits dwell at the north, northeast, northwest, and west. The females dwell at the remaining ])oint8, and each principal spirit has innumerable intermediate and less powerful attendants.

THE NENENOT OR "NASKOPIE."

The Indians of the Ungava district are locally known as Nasko]ue, a term of reproach applied to them by the mountaineers (tlie Montagnais of the early Jesuit missionaries) during the earlier days when the former actt^d falsely in one of their (»oncerted strugirles with the Eskimo of the eastern coast.

The name given to themselves is Nenenot, a word meaning true, or ideal red men. To the west of these peoph*. dwell a branch of the tribe along the east shore of Hudson bay. To the southeast dwell the mountaineers.

The west*un pcH>ple differ greatly in customs and many words of their language from the Nenenots. The mountaineers differ but little in their (*ustoms, and only in speech as much as would be expected fnmi the difterent locality in which they dwell.

Tliese three tribes have distinct boundaries, beyond which they seldom wander. Of late years, however, a gradual influx of the west^srn people hjis poured into the Ungava district, due to the decrease of the food supply along that portion of the eastern coast of Hudson bay.

Tlie Nenenots a])pear, from tlie best information I could obtain on the subject, to have been driven to their present location during the wars waged against tliem by the Iroquois in times long gone by and remembered only in tradition.

They assert that tlieir original home was in a country to the west, north of an immense river, and toward the east lay an enormous body of salt water. The former was supposed to be tlie St. Lawrence river and the latter to be Hudson bay. When they came to their present pljice they say that they found Eskimo alone, and these only along the coast. They are a branch of the Cree stock, as their language clearly iiulicates.

Many years ago war was waged upon them by the people whose name is remembered with terror even to this day. Most cruel atrocities were perpetrated, and in despair they fled from the land of their fathers^ where they had lived as a numerous people, and were pursued by their merciless foes until but a remnant readied what is now known as the "Height of Land."

Being now driven to a strange land, where they found numerous Eskimo on all sides, only a few years elapsed before they encroached too greatly upon the land which the Eskimo had always held. Contention and struggles arose, culminating in a disposition to fight, and in the course of time desultory warfare, carried on by single combat or organized raids. This lasted for many years, even after the advent of the white men as traders along the coast. Some of the battles were attended with great slaughter on both sides. The Eskimo seldom ventured far from the (M)ast on their raids, but fought bravely when at- tacked on their own ground. In most instances they outwitted the Indians by de(u>ying them into ambush, and killing great numbers of them. Within the present century tliey have been more i)eaceably disposed toward each other. Since the arrival of the white men at various iK>ints along the coast these troubles have ceased, and the Indians and Eskimo are now on intimate terms; not that either party have any H]»ecial regard for the new comers, but they have a mutual tour of ejujh other, and the white man now engages their entire attention.

In the early struggles the Indian found the Eskimo to be a sturdy opponent, possessed of greater endurance and perseverance than himself. After the conclusion of the troubles they withdrew to their pres- ent haunts, and now wander indiscriminately over the land, although the Eskimo seldom ventures far into the interior unless it be along the valley of some large stream. They even camp alongside of each other, and aged Indian men and women, who have been left behind the parties of young people who are in quest of fur-bearing animals during the winter months, are only too glad to have a camp of jolly Eskimo near at hand. With them they can live as parasites until their hosts are exhausted of supplies, or until they move to another locality to relieve themselves of the importunities of their unbidden guests.

The Indian is not the physical superior of the Eskimo. It is true they are more expert on snowshoes, because the snowshoes belong to their mode of life. They are used by the Eskimo only when they can be l)urehasod by barter from the Indian. The Eskimo snowshoe is merely a rude imitation of the form used by the neighboring Indians. In the canoe the Indian is at home; so also is the Eskimo in the kaiak. which braves the severest weather and the roughest water, on which the Indian w(mld only gaze in dread and never venture.

Ability to endure fatigue is less in the Indian than the Eskimo, who accomplishes by patient persistence what the Indian desires to do in a

huny. I have not observed Indians carry such heavy loads as those borne on the shoulders of Bskimo, who, with ease, ascended a hill of such abrupt steepness that an unencumbered person climbed it with difficulty. Several Eskimo men ascended this hill, each with a barrel of flour on his shoulders.

The Indian is able to withstand the eflect of cold as well as the Eskimo. The clothing of the latter is certainly better adapted to protect against c-old. In times of scarcity of food the Eskimo is able to go without food for a number of days and yet i)erforni a considerable amount of physical labor, while the Indian would require food on the second or third day, and refuse to move until it had been fiirnished.

In comparison with a white man under the same conditions the natives of either class would soon show signs of inferiority, and under prolonged exertion but few, even of the Eskimo, would endure the strain. The principal strength of these i)eople is sho^vn in their success in the chase.

The children are obedient to their parents, who seldom ever cJiastise them. Disrespect to parents is unknown, and in their interc(mr8e with ejvch other there are no clashings during ytmth. Not until the jealousies awakened under the stimulus of their sexual instincts arouse their passions do they begin to show enmity and hatred toward each other.

The males evidently exhibit jealousy to a less degree than the opposite sex. The men, after a protracted absence from each other, often embrace and shed tears of joy at meeting. The women are less demonstrative.

The number of children born exceeds the number of deaths. Mortality appeared to be low for the two years I was near these people. The prevailing diseases are of the lungs and bowels. The lung diseases are induced by constant exposure to extremes of wet and cold and the inhalation of foul air laden with terebinthine odors, arising from the resinous woods used for fuel. Changes of the wind blowing in at the door cause the interior to become filled with smoke, which is endured rather than admit the cold air from without.

Abstinence from fresh food for a long time, with dry meat only to subsist upon, is often broken by the sudden capture of deer. This affords an opportunity for gorging until the digestive organs are weakened and serious complications arise. It is quite probable that gluttony directly produces half of the illnesses that oc^iur among these people. The insufficiency of clothing does not apparently influence health, as they seem utterly regardless of exposure, and hmg continued dwelling in the tents i)robably induces nearly, if not quite, all the other ills afflicting them. Indolent ulcers and scrofulous complications are frequent, but only in few instances are of such character as to prevent their following their usual occupations. During illness they are stolid, and appear to suffer intense i)ain without the twitching of a muscle. When

death approaches it has but httle terror, and is awaited with indifFerence.

The remedies employed are only those afforded by the beating of the drum and the mumblings of the shaman, who claims to have control of the spirit which causes all disease and death. They are, however, firm believers in the efficacy of i)otions compounded by the white trader, who is fully as ignorant of the disease as the subject himself is. Often a harmless mixture of red ink, red pepper, ginger, or other pungent substance is given, with a multiplicity of confusing directions, be- wildering the messenger dispatched for relief, who, in repeating them, often makes mistakes and advises that the whole quantity be swallowed. The effect is sometimes magical, and the patient recovers. Powders are rubbed over the seat of pain and liniments swallowed with avidity. Strange as it may seem, they often report good effects, and rarely fail to ask for more of the same kind. Both sexes attain a great age — in some instances certainly living over seventy years. Some assert that they were well advanced in years before the white men came in 1827.

Tlie marriage ceremony is simply a consetit to live together, obtained by request if possible, and by force, if necessary. The man takes a wife as soon as he considers himself able to 8upi)ort one. When the ceremony is to be undertaken the consent of the girl's parents or nearest relatives is sought, and by holding out tempting inducements in the form of presents, the suitor wins them to his favor. The consent of the girl, if she has not yet been married is, of course, granted, if she desires to comply with the wishes of her relatives. If not, the pros I)ective husband is informed that they can do nothing to turn her heart. The matter is understood, and in a short time she is taken forcibly to his or his father's tent. The tie binding the couple is very loose, and on the least provocation may be dissolved by either party. Continence on the part of either wife or husband is unusual, and only notorious incontinence is sufficient to cause the offender to be put away. Their sexual relations are very loose among themselves, but their immorality is confined to their own people. To take a second, a third, or oven a fourth wife, is not uncommon, but the additional wives are taken principally for the purpose of performing labor imposed by the energy of a successful hunter. It is only he wealthy men who can afford a plurality of wives. The several wives often dwell in the same tent, but as jealousies frequently arise they resort to fighting among themselves to settle their dift'erenc^es. The husband looks on calmly until matters go too far. When he interferes the women are sure of being soundly thrashed. A woman, however, often assails her husband, and in some instances gives him an unmerciful pounding, much to the amusement of the bystanders, who encourage her to do her best. The man is a subje<;t for ridicule for weeks afterwards. Either sex can endure being beaten, but not being laughed at. They rarely forgive a white man who laughs at their discomfiture. An amusing incident occurred within a

stone's throw of Fort Oliimo. An Indian had his ch)thing stripped from him by his enraged wife. Slie then tore the tent from the poles, leaving him naked. She took tlieir property to the canoe, which she paddled several miles up the stream. lie followed along the bank until she relented, whereuiwn their former relations were resumed, as tliough nothing had disturbed the harmony of their life. The man was so severely plagued by his comrades that for many days he scarcely showed his head out of the tent. Rivalry for the favor of a woman ox man is occasionally tlie source of serious affrays. An instance wjis related to me where two men sought the hand of a woman, and to settle which should have her, they determined to go in their canoes to the lake near by and fight with their deer spears. One of the men was killecl and the other thereupon obtained the woman, who is now living.

The sexes have their special Labors. Women perform the drudgery and bring home the food slain by their husbands, fet^'hing wood and water, tanning the skins, and making them into clothing. The labor of erecting the tents and hauling the sleds when on their journey during the winter falls upon them, and, in fact, they perform the greater part of the manual labor. They are ccmsidered inferior to the men, and in their social life they soon show the effects of tiie hardships they undergo.

The females arrive at puberty at the age of 14 or 15, and are taken as wives at even an earlier age. So early are they taken in marriage that before they are 30 years of age they often appear as though they were 50. Some of them are hideously ugly, and are so begrimed with smoke from the resinous wood used for fuel and with filth that it is purely guesswork to even approximate their age. The women appear to be exempted from the curse of Eve, and deliver their children with as little concern as is exhibited among the brutes. The child is not allowed to receive nourishment until the third day, and no water must touch its boily. The infant is swaddled in wrapi)ing8 of skins and cloths. Sphagnum moss is used next the body and changed every other day. They begin to walk at an early age, and this is, doubtless, the principal cause of the bowing of the legs so ofton observed. The girls are neglected and the boys given every advantage. The latter soon discover their importance and rarely fail to show their domineering ways to the other sex.

It is quit<i rare that twins are born. It is not usual for a mother to have more than four children, altlumgh as many as six or eight may be born. As the paternal origin is ofton obscure, the person having that woman as wife at the time of the child's birth is supposed to be its father.

The mortuary customs of the Naskopie were but imperfectly learned, for when a death occurred at the trading station the body was buried like a white man's. A shallow grave Wiis dug in a sandy soil, as this offered less trouble in digging, and the body placed in a rudely con-

272 THK HUDSON BAY ESKIMO.

struoteil coffin au(i covered with dirt. A small branch from a tree was placeil at the head of the grave, but with what signification I could not S4\tisfsictori1y determine. I received the reply that the white men put something at the head of their graves, and so do the Indians.

Away from the post the Indians suspend their dead from the branches of trees, if the ground be frozen too hard to excavate, and endeavor to return in the following summer and inter the body. A person who has distinguished himself among the people is often burie a sut!li»ient depth to cover the body. The tent is then removed to another location. The Indians have not that dread of a corpse which is shown so plainly among the Eskimo. The former have been known to strip the clothing from recently deceased Eskimo, and it is not infreipient for them to appropriate the gun or other implement pla<*ed by the side of a dead Innuit.

In rt\spi>nse to my inquiry how they disiH^swi of their dead in former ages, I obtained evidence that scattbld burial and susi>ension from trees wexe formerly pnM5ticeil and that subterraneiin burials were introduced by the missionaries.

The ileaii are mourniHl for aoconling to the position they occupied in life, a favorite child otTen causing an alarming grief in the mother who mourns for many days, constantly bemoaning her loss and reminding the listeners i>f the tn^its in the child's nature so well i-emembered. The boily is taken to the place of final re^t by the friends, the relations seldom accompanying it.

The life of these pei>ple is a constant struggle to obtain food and rauneut. Nothing, however uuimi>ortant, is done without much delibation and repeated i*onsultation with friends.

They iu* also guided to a great extent by their di^eams, for they imagine that in the night they areindirei»t communication with the spirits which watch over their daily iKX?upations. Certain persons obtain much renown in divining the dreams and these are consulted with the greatest ci^nfidence. The drum is brought into use, and during its tumult the persim ptv§ses into a state of stuiH)r or trance and in a few moments arouses himself to revetil the meaning of the other s dream.

Superstitiou holds tht-se people in its terrible sway and everything not understood is attributed to the working of one of the nunien^^us spirits.

Every object, however simple, appears to have its p;^trtm spirit, which, in onier that it may periorm its services for the welfare of the people, must be pr>pitiated with «>tfferings most pleau^iug and aiveptable to it. The rule seems to be that ;vll spirits are by nature Kul. and must be propitiated to secure tht'ir favor. Each pers^ni has a ]mtn>n spirit, and these must always l>e placated lest misf«>mine ivme. These spirits assume an infinite variety of forms, and to know just what form it Assumed wlieo it indicted its baneful efiftfcts, the shamans or meilioine

TCRWEE.1 RKLIGJON. 273

men must be consulted. These are supposed to be in direct contact with such spirits. The spirit will appear only in the darkness of the conjuring: house, and then i>ermit itself to be appeased by some atonement made by the afflicted, which can be made known only throuji^h the shaman. He ah)ne indictxtes the course to be pursued, and his direc tions, to be explicitly followed, are often so confusing and impossible that the person fails to perform them. All these minor spiiits are under the control of a single great spirit having its dwelling in the sky, a term as illimitable with those people as with ourselves.

Each animal has its protective spirit, which is inferior to tliose of man. The soul, if such expression may be used, of all animals is indestructible, and is capable of reappearing again and again as often as the material form is destroyc^d. Tliere are spirits of beasts, birds, fishes, insects, and plants. Each of these has a home to which it returns after death, which is simply a cessation of that period of its material form, and each may be recalled at the will of the shaman. If an animal be killed it does not decrease the number of that species, for it still exists, although in a different form.

The Canada jay is supposed to inform the various animals of the approac'h of Indians, and these rarely fail to kill the jay wherever found.

A species of mouse is supposed to have such dread of man that it dies the instant it wanders near the track of a person. They often find these tiny creatures near the path, and believe them to be unable to cross it.

As the dusk of eve draws near, the silent flitting of the common shorteared owl {Asio a<*cipUrinus), and the hawk owl {Surnia funeria)^ attracted by the sounds of the camp, creates direst confusion. The announcement of its presence causes the entire assemblage of people to be alert and hastily suspend some unworn garment, that the bird may perceive it and thus know that the people are not so poor in their worldly i)osses8ions as the spirit Wiq'-ti-qu may think; as it only annoys peo])le who are too poor to have extra garments. As this short-eared owl frequents only the lower lands, the Indians assert that they are compelled to select the higher ]:>oints of land as their camping sites in order to escape from him.

The shaman, as I have already said, is believed to be able to control all these difterent spirits by his mfigic art, and to foretell the future, but he must be concealed from view while carrying on his mysterious performancics. Hence a special structure must be erected in which the shaman goes through various contortions of body until in a state of exhaustion and while in that weakened condition he fancies these things which have such wonderful hold on the minds of the people.

The tent (Fig. 85) is high and of small diameter. Every crack and crevice in the tent is carefully closed to exclude even the least ray of light.

When within it, the shaman begins his operations by groaning and 11 ETH 18

grsAuaHy iocreasiiig the pitch of voice aiitii his mreecbing; can be beard a great (Ii»taii(-e. The din uf the dmin adds cnufitsion to tfae ceretiHiny. Tbif goes on until the ehaman announces the appearance of the Kpirit irith whom he desires to conimnne. He im]>lores the spirit U> grant the ret^nest, and in the course of time infonnH the people outside that he ban siic4-eeded in »ecnriug the wr'ice.s of the spirit. All within }>ei^tmen qniet and only whisiieriiifirs are heard.

The spirit promixcH to fulfill the obligation he haii undertaken. and the conjuror tim>wH over the tent and tttates the result of the interview. This result is always favorable, as his reputation depends ai>ou its happening. Any untoward circnmstauce, such as a person taming over a stone or breaking a twig &on) a bush while traveling, is sufficient cunse to break the epell, and the blame can be laid on the shoulders of such

Fia. 85 — iDdUn m«ditb>e lodgo.

an ofTender. If the rerjuest he not grantitl within tlie stipnhited time as anuoanccd by the shaman at the end of the ceremony, some one is certain to have been the caane of displeasing the spirit, who now withholds the favor until reparation for the oftcnse is made. The conjurer is not slow to make some one do peuHDce while he himself is gainiug time, as he takes good care not to attempt anytliing out of season.

Wlien an Indian kills one of the larger and fiercer wild beasts it is customary to reserve a iwrtion of the skin or other part of the body as a memento of the deed.

These mementos are sacredly kept to show the prowess of the hnnter mid lit the same time they serve as a token of tiktt wealtli procured by bartering the pelt of the animal to the trader. The wolf, bear, and wolveriue are considered worthy of remembrance, and of the

OCCUPATIONS.

Fid.Bt — IndlBD unuli

first and last mentionwl aniinal» a olaw or a tip of an ear may werve as a souvenir.

The under lip of tlie bear (Fif;. 86) is the iiortiou pi-escrved. Tiie skill is cut ofi' and spraiul flat to dry. Tlie fleHh xide nf tlif Hkin is paiiitvd with powderwi liematite mixed witli water or oil.

Tlie outer edges or lijis aiv omameuted with a siiifrle row of muny- colorod heads. At tlie apex or niiddie of tlie lip is atta<'hed a pendant in the form of a flsli. The fish is 3 or 4 inches louf^, made of cloth and has a row of beads extending around the entire cireuiuference of the lentil of the body.

These meinentoB are protnred with great difficulty from the hanter who has risked his life in the stnipgles attending the capture of the beasts for the barren-ground bear of that region is not a timid creature like the black bear; and unless the hunter in well prepared for the animal lie would do well to let it alone.

The orciipationa of the sexes are so nuineroas that a detailed micouut alone would suffice, as the various seasons have their regular routine hibors besides those unexpectedly apiiearing. In the spring the Indians of both sexeaooineto thepostof Fort Chino to triide their winter's hunt of ftir-besiring animals. About the middle of March word is brought that the camp of old men and women with a iininber of children, left (W)ni the parties seattered in all directions during the previous fall, are fliowly approaching the jwat. They come by easy stages, camping here and there for a day or two, bnt striving (o be near about the time that the earlier parties come in to trade. These latter straggle along from the middle of April to the last of May, those who had ascended the streams to the heatlwaters often not arriving until after the breaking of the ice in the river, which may be as late as the 15th of June. When they collet-t at the ]>ost they have an opportunity to meet after a separation of months and enjoy a [>eri<>d of rest. Thetrading of their furs and other articles <-ontinue8 slowly until the parties have made their selections of guns, ammunition, tobacco, ainl cloths, a quantity of dour, biscuit, peas, beans, rice, and sngar. Molasses is purchased iu enormous quantities, a hogshead of <.K> gallons sufficing for only three or foar days' trade. Other articles of varied character, from needles and beads to calico and cloth, are l)onght by the women.

The parties receive the allowance given in advance for the prosecu-

276 THE HUDSON BA.Y ESKIMO.

tion of the ensuing winter's hunt, after which they are relied on to raft down the sui)ply of wood cut by the white men for the next winter's supply of fuel. This consumes the season until tlie middle of July. Stragglers are out even later. The men, meantime, select the locality where they will remain for the summer and fall. The winter is to be occupied in getting furs. Each head of a party announces his intended location and the parties gradually leave the post for their destination. Some of the Indians in former years were employed to assist the salmon fishing, but they proved to be unreliible, either thrtmgh fear of the turbulent waters of the Koksoak or inattention to their task. They were easily allured from the nets by the ap])earance of any game, and as the tides in that river do not wait even for an Indian, serious losses resulted from carelessness, llence their places in later years are filled by Eskimo, who are better adapted to the work.

The various parties disperse in different directions in order that the entire district may afford its products for their benefit. The Indians know the habits of the animals in those regions so well that they are sure, if they go to a particular locality, to find the game they are in quest of.

The reindeer provides them with the greater part of their food and the skins of these animals afford them clothing.

Although their food consists of reindeer, ptarmigan, fish, and other game, the deer is their main reliance, and when without it, however great the abundance of other food, they consider themselves starving.

The deer are procured in sev(»ral ways, the i)rincipal of w^hich is by the use of the lance or spear. In the months of Septeml)er and Octotober they collect from various directions. During the spring the females had repaired to the treeless hills and mountains of the Cape Chidley region to bring forth their ycmng on those elevations in early June or late May. After the young have become of good size the mothers lead them to certain localities whither the males, having gone in|an opposite direction, also return. Tliey meet somewhere along the banks of the Koksoak river, usually near the confluence of that river with the North or Larch. While tliousands of these animals are congregated on each bank small herds are continually swimming baek and forth, impelled by the sexual instinct. The hair of the young animals is now in excellent condition for making skin garments. The females are thin, not yet having recovered from the exhaustion of furnishing food for their young and material for the new set of antlers, which apj>ear immediately after the birth of the fawns. The skin is, however, in tolerable condition, especially in lat^^ October. The back of the male is now covered with a large mass of fat known as ''back fat." This deposit is about 1 to 1 J inches thick by 2 feet broad and 20 inches long. The males are full of vigor and in the best possible c-ondition at this season, as the antlers have become dry and cease to draw upon the animal for material to supply their immense growth.

TiTkNERi Hunting. 277

The hunting parties, always on tlie alert for the herds of deer which are hastening to the assembling place, follow them up, and in the course of time conjecture at what point they will congregat«». Here they establish camps and intercept the deer when crossing the streams. The canoes are held in readiness, while the hunters scan the opposite hillsides for deer filing along the narrow paths thnmgh the forests and bushes towards the river bank. Arrived there, the deer, after a moment's pause, esigerly take to the water, boldly swimming as they quart(Mdown stream with the current. The animals swim high in the wat(?r, scarcely more than a third of the bo<ly immersed. They move compactly, in a crowd, their antlers appearing at a distance like the branches of a tree floating with the current. The Indian crouches low and speecls for the canoe. Silently it is pushed into the water, and two or three rowers take their pljK»es within. Rapid but noiseless strokes given by sturdy arms soon bring the boat below and to the rear of the body of deer, who are now thrown into the greatest consternation as they perceive their most dreaded foe suddenly by their side. The deer endeavor to retreat, but the men are between them and the shore. The occupants of the canoe now drive the deer quartering up stream and toward the shore where the camp is situated. Should they, by some mistake on the part of the hunters, start downstream, they are certain to be separated, and swim so rapidly that unless there be two canoes they will, for the most part, escape. If the herd is well kept together they may be driven at the will of the pursuer. He strives to direct them to such 8i)ot that when the thrust with the spear is given only sufficient vitality will be left to enable the stricken animal to regain the shore. When the spear touches the vital part, the animal plunges forward and the instrument is withdrawn. A hurried thrust pierces another lictim, until all the herd, if small, maybe slain. The wounded animal now feels the internal cavity filling, with blood, and seeks the nearest land whereon its ebbing strength scarcely allows it to stand. A few wistful turns of the head to the right or h^ft, a sudden spreading of its limbs to supi)ort the swaying body, a plunge forward — the convulsive struggles that mark the end. If the band is large, some generally escape. Some may be so wounded that they plunge into the bushes perhaps but a few yards and there lie and die, furnishing food for the beasts and birds of prey.

The carcases of the deer are strip])ed of skins and fat and the viscera are removed. The fat is laid one side, fhat from the intestines being also reserved for future rendering.

The skins are taken to the camps and piled up. Those which are not to be tanned immediately are hung over i)oles to dry, the flesh side turned upwards.

The meat is stripped from the bones and taken to the tents, where it is exposed t4> the smoke and hot air over the fire and (juickly dried. Some of the Indians are so expert in stripping the flesh from the skeleton that the exact form or oatlines of the auimal are preserved in the process of drying. The dr>ing flesh acquires a very dark brown color from the smoke and blood left within the tissues. Certain portions of the dry meat, especially those from the flanks and abdominal wallsf are qnite palatable; they are crisp, and have a rich nutty flavor. The intercostal muscles are also choice portions, while some of the flesh from the haunches is dry and nearly tasteless. The back fat is often dried and smoked, but accjuires a disagreeable rancid taste.

The long bones are cracked and the marrow extracted. This substance is the most highly prized portion of the animal, and in seasons of plenty the deer are often slaughtered for the marrow alone. The &t is placed in iK)ts or kettles and rendered over a fire. It is then poured into another vessel to cool, and forms a valuable article of trade and a necessity for food, and is alsr) required in the process of tanning the skins.

The bones containing the marrow are cracked and placed in akettle, hung over a slow fire, and the substance melted. The marrow brings a higher price than the tallow, and is esteemed a choice article of food. The heads are thrown to one side until the decomposing brain is wanted to be mixed with the semi-putrid liver for the purpose of tanning the skins. When the flesh has dried sufficiently it is taken down and put into pa(*.kages of about thirty pounds' weight each. These bundles are enveloped in the parchment like subcutaneous tissue, and stored away until they are needed for food. A species of mold attacks the flesh if it is not frequently ins|>ected and dried, but as it is harmless, it does not injure the meat. Indians for weeks at a time subsist entirely on this dried meat. They also have a season of plenty when the female deer and the bucks of less than two years are on their way to the Cape Chidley region. Here the females bring forth their young unmolested by the old bucks and also less annoyed by the myriads of mosquitoes which throng the lower parts of the country.

The crossing x>hice of the females and young bucks is at or near Fort Chimo at least each alternate year. About the 5th to the 10th of May the assembled Indians anxiously await the coming of the g<anie. In the course of a few days the welcome cry of "Deer!" is heard, and the camp immediately becomes a scene of great excitement — men hurrying to get their guns and ammunition, women shouting the direction of the game, and children running to the higher eminences to watch the herds.

The men ende^ivor to occui)y a narrow defile, where the herd will pass between the hills to the level land beyond. Some station themselves at the top of the ravine, while the swiftest runners liasten to the head of the defile to lie in ambush until the deer, urged from behind, rush past, to be met with a volley of balls from all sides. Panic seizes the animals, and wherever they turn an Indian confronts them. Until the deer recover from their paralysis, and <mce more obey their instinct to escape, numbers of them stand quietly waiting to be slaughtered;

others walk unconcernedly al>our, seeminijly deprived of the power of flight. The Indians hurriedly close ujion them, and in a few minutes the entire herd is destroyed or dispersed in all directions.

The guns used on this occasion are the chea])est kind of muzzle-loading single-barreled shotguns. The balls used are of such size that they will drop to the bottom of the chamber. No patching is used, and a jar on the ground is deemed sufficient to settle the ball upon the jwwder. The employment of a ramrod would require too umch time, as the Indian is aotinited by the desire to kill as many as possible in the shortest time. They do not use the necessary care in loading their guns, and often the ball becomes lodged in the chamber and the gun bursts when fired. When shooting downhill the ball often rolls out. It is surprising that so few fatal accidents occur. A quantity of powder is poured directly into the gun from its receptjicle, the ball dropped down, and a cap taken from between the fingers, where it was placed for convenience. Hunters often practice the motions of rapid loading and firing. They are remarkably expert, surpassing the Eskimo in this, though the Eskimo is far the better marksman.

A third method ])ursued is that of snaring the deer.

A plan adopted to capture deer in the winter is as follows: A herd of deer is discovered, an<l men and women put on their snowshoes. The deer are surrounde<l and driven into a snowbank many feet deep, in which the affrighted animals plunge until they nearly bury themselves. The hunters, armed with the lance, pursue them and kill them. This means of procuring deer is only adopted when the herd is near a convenient snowbank of jmiper depth. The snow falling in the winter c^lle^ts in gullies and ravines, and only in seasons where there has been an abundance of snow will it attain sufficient de])th to serve the purpose.

Smaller game, such as ducks, geese, ptarmigan, hares, rabbits, porcupines, beavers, and an octcasional lynx, afford variety of food. Ptar- migan are slaughtered by thousands. Hundreds of i)ounds of their feathers annually ])urchase small trinkets for the Indian women, and during this season it is unusual to see a wonnin without some feathers of these birds adhering to her clothing or hair.

The women and men annually destroy thousands of the eggs and young of these birds. Rabbits and hares, too, fall beneath the arrow or shotgun. Porcupines an* more (common toward the sources of the streams falling into Hudson Strait. They are found in trees, from which they gnaw the bark and terminal i)ortions of the branches for food. The porcupine must be carefully cleaned lest the flesh be unfit for food. The hair and spines are removed by scorching or by pouring hot water over the Ixxly.

Of the carnivorous mammals the lynx (mly is eaten, and this when other fo<Hl is scarce, iiears are so rare that they form but an unini-

280 THE im>Sf)X BAY ESKIMO.

[Kirtaiit [Kirtioii of the IiidiaDV diet. Wolverines, wolves, aud foxes are never eaten.

F'ish iff varioaH kinds are plentiful. The lakes and streams aboand with salmon in summer, and tn>ut, white tish, suckers, and a few less <^>mmon sjiec^ies are eagerly sought for food. Fish are caught with the hiK>k or net. Fishing through holes in the ice affords an ample supply of fine trout, and the net set along the shore upon the disappearance of the ii5e is sure to reap a rich haul of white fish, suckers, and trout.

In tlie preparation of the fcKKl little care* is exercised to prevent its coming in contact with obje<'tionable substances. The deer meat is laid niKHi the stones of the l>each and particles of gnt imbed themselves in the substance. The Hesh for cooking is often dropped into the vessels in which the tallow or marrow is being rendered. Neither children nor ailults have any regular ]Mfriods of eating, but appear to be always hungry. It is thus not unusual to see a filthy child thrust its hand into the cooling fat to obtain a choice portion of meat as it settles to the bottom.

The dry meat is ofUtn pounded into a coarse |)owder by means of stone or metal iK^^stles. The meat is placed upon a smooth, hard stone for this purpose. The ligaments are picked out, and when a sufficient quantity has been prepared it is put into baskets or bags aud stored away for future use. The crackeil bones from which the marrow was extracted are caUdned and reduced to powder and used as an absorbent of the fat from the skins in the process of tanning.

The unborn young of the reindeer, taken from the mother in the spring, are considered a prime delicacy by Indians, as well as Eskimo. The eggs of various si)ecie8 of birds are eagerly sought for, and it matters little whether they are fresh or far advanced in incubation. The embryo bird, with the attached yolk of the egg, is swallowed with infinite*, gusto. The Indian seldom eats raw flesh unless dried meat be excei)ted.

P^nougli has been written concerning the reindeer to show that without it the very existence of the Indian would be imperiled. Both food and clothing, the prime netressities of life, are obtained from the animal, and its numbers do not seem to decrease with the merciless or thoughUess slaughter. Hundreds of carcases are never utilized. I counttMl 173 carcases on one side of the river in going a distance of about H4) miles, and when 1 came to their camps I saw incredible piles of meat and skins going to waste. The winter months are occupied by men in hunting the various fur-bearing animals, the principal of which are white, red, cross, and black or silver foxes, martens, minks, wolverines, wolves, nuiskrat^, and beavers: these are abundant. Few lynxes and bear are obtained. A considerable number of others are found in this region and afford fine skins.

Steel traps are generally set, various sizes of traps being used for the different animals. A great number of otter and beaver are shot in the

OLOTniNO.

water. Deadfalls c^uBistiii^ of a log of wtxxl set upon fl{n>re-4 triggers rarely fitil to kill mink and niarti>ii. Tti<f lynx iaunually taken by means of a Biiare with the loop over acircle of lowpegssnrroiiiidingtlie tongue of the figure-l set of triggers. The spring, usually a littie sapling, is strong eiiongh to lift the forelegs of thvaiiiuiiil from Ihegroitnil when the noose encircles its neck.

The Indian (conceives the wolveniie to Ik an aniniul embodying all the running and mischiet'that can be cont lined in the akin of uheast. To its eunning is iulded great bodily Htrt iigtli, enabling this medinm sizetl animal to aecoinplixli destmction appaieutly inudi bcjond its Rtrength.

Every other iinimal in the forests where it dwells prefers to give it the path rather than engage in struggle with it. / When si'ized in a trap a wolverine oftors a sturdy resist- ance. Even a famished wolf, - to my personal knowledge, w' stand and look at it, but not att<'inpt to cope with it. In this particular instance, however, the wolf may have Mm- sidered the iiredicament of the wolverine another means of strategy employed by that animal to entrap the wolf, and so I deemed it wise to remain respet^tfnl distance.

Every form of torture which the Indian mind is capable of conceiving is inflicted upon this animal when it is captured. All manner of vile names and reproaches are ajiplicd to it. Tlie Indian enjoys relating how lie singed its fur off, broke its bones, and tormente<l it in many ways, as it slowlyexpired under his hand.

Pin ST -Indian bnekaUn CMt,

The apparel worn by the Uugava Indians is quite distinct for the difl'ereiit sexfs. The method of preparing the skins for the inaiinfacture of garments is the same, but the forms of the garments for the se.\es are so dift'eient as to retpiire special consideration.

The garments worn by the men differ somewhat according to ttie Heamm of the yeiir, for the extremes of climat« are very great. The clothing of the men consists of a coat, breecheSf leggings, moccasins, gloves or mittena, and cap or headdress.

The coat consists of the skins of the reindeer tanned into a thoroughly pliable condition by the process to be described presently.

The shai>ti of the garment worn in Humiuer (Figs. 87 and 88) is somewhat similar to that of a frock coat, but without the tails. The buck is cut from a single skin and the skirt cut up from below. Intu this is inserted a piece of suffieisnt width to allow movement of the lower limbs. The sides are from the second skin, split down the middle of ' the back and sewed to the skin, forming the back of the garment. The back • «>«■ 1 ^^|„ f„r,ug the covering

fin tlu top rit thi hlioitlderit and extends to tht, collar seam. The side skins form the front tud neck of the garment The sleeves are made of a third skiu,and frequentiv have i roll or cuff to increise the length, if necessary The collar is merely a strip of skin sewed to the neck It IS usually turned down The fnnit is usually oi>en ind i f ni tde to be closed It IS held in iwsition by a belt or gaudily colored scarf of woolen or cotton purchased from the trnder.

!we<l with siucw like that ims which run the entire

FlO. ra— DeWI of pattmi panted

The sciims of the Hothing are always used by the Kskiimi. There ai-e bnt two

"■1

CLOTHING.

length of the coat, and these are the aide Beams. The seam at the

Bkirt, the iinnhole, sleeve, and collar are the shorter ones. The coat U

alvaya more or less ornamented with extravagant painted designs.

The colors and other materials used for painting these designs will be

described in another conuection, aa well as the manner of applying

them.

The patterns of these designs will be best understood

by reference to the figures,

which show some of them in

detail (Figs. 89, 90).

The colors used often present startling combinations

of red, blue, yellow, and

brown. The portions of the

garments n|>on which theSe

colors are placed are the

front edges of the opening

of the coiit, the wrists, and

rings around the arms or

sleeves, the skirt and'pyra- Fm.»o— i>«>t«iiofi»tie™p.tnt«doi.d«n.kinnib^

mid-shaped designs over the hips. The piece intended to widen the

skirt behind is always entirely wivered with a design of some kind.

Over the outside of the

seuuis a line of paint is

always applied, nearly

always of a red orbrown

color.

Frequently a series of

quadrate blotches or

squares produced by

variously colon-d lines

runs from the apex of the piece inserted in tlie

skirt Ui the collar.

Tlie length of the coat . is such as to reach to the i middleof the thigh. Tlie coverings for the h>wer ' limbs and for the hips J ai-e quite distinct, the hips the gtirment is J a sort of breeches ofl which the legs are so short as oidy to cover the upper poition of the thigh. The breeches are held in place by means of a drawstring in front.

CLOTHING.

ankles, bringing the ends in front over the tongue. The cnda of the topH are laid carefully over one aaother and wrapped round by the endH of the thongs which hold the im)ccasin8 on tho feet.

Certain portions of the skin make better footwear than other ]>arta. The neck skin is too thick and stiff to allow the croast's antnnd the toe8 to be properly made; the Hanks are too thin; while the neck is useful for tho tongues, the Hides for the bottoms, and the flanks and portions of the back, scarred by the grubs infesting the animal, for the toi»3 and strings.

Moccasins for youn^ children often have a Ream parallel with tlic toes and the creasing is thus obviated. Those for wearing in tho tent or in the dry vicinity of the eamp have no tops and are held to the foot by means of a drawstring.

As most of the strain in walking comes upon the tongue, and this portion is" nsuatly ornamented, it is necessary that it should be of a good quality of leather. A piece of black, blue, or re4l cloth is generally laid over the tongue for ornament. There is sometimes bead work on this portion, but as these pco|>le are not skillful ill the artof disi>osingtbe niiinyculoreil bends they are not much used for that iiurpose.

A single deerskui will make tive to seven |>airs of moccasins for an mlnlt,and as tliey last but two or three weeks as many as fifteen to twenty-live i>airs are necessary for ejich lulult.

The hands are protected with mittens (Fig, 93) made of smokeil deerskin. The skin is folded, and along the fold tho shape of the mitten is cut so as to leave a part by which the two pieces are Joined, and the edges forme<l in the cutting are sewed together. Tho thumb is made as follows: A tongue-shaped piece is cut out of the pahn and the base of that pie<-e is left as the part to form the under or inner covering for the thumb, A piece is now trimmed that ^vill fit tho pliu:e cutout and the two i»iirts sewed together.

The thumb of the Indian is, as a rule, shorter than that of the white man, and a pair of native-made mittens are quite uncomlbrtablc until

Flfl.n.1.-lDdiim

A pair of these brcechois is never ornamented with paint, as they a.Fe usually not exposed to view.

A pair of leggings extends from the upper portion of the thigh to the ankles. The leggings (Fig. 91) are each made of a single piece somewhat in the form of a narrow bag open at each end. They are held in position by means of a string attached in front and fastened tfl the upper portions of the breeches. The Heam is on the outer side of the leggings and along it is sewed a strip of deerskin having the edges cnt into fringe. The leggings are painted iu much the same fashion as the coat.

The moccasins (Fig. 92) are rarely ornamented, except with beads on the tongue or else with a strip of red, blue, or bla^k cloth.

In the construction of a moccasin the measure of the foot is taken if it is intended for a person of importance or if the maker attempts to do skillful work. The sole is cut outfirst in theshapeof a parallelogram. The edges are turned up and creasi^s made around that portion of the deerskin which surrounds the toes and a part of the side of the foot.

The creases are made perpendicular in ordei' to take up a iwrtion of the slack of the skill. Theyareheldin position by a stout sinew thread run throngh each one and around to the other side to prevent them from separating and thus " bagging " over tlie toes. This is the most particular part of the work and on these stitt;lies depend the skill of the maker. The sides of the foot and heel are not crensed as the heelseam takes nil the slack for the i>osterior portion of the moccasin.

The tongue of the moccasin is a piece cut into a shape resembling that member with the tip of it over the toes. This is sewed to the edges of the creases, and between it and the creases is often sewed a narrow welt of skin or cloth. The superfluous edges of the slii»pershaped slioe are now trimmed off, and the top, or i>ortion to cover the ankle, is sewed on. This portion is a long narrow strip of inferior .skin of sufficient size to overlap in front and to come well above the ankles. It is lelt open like the tops of laced shoes. Just below, or at the edge of the tops, a long thong of deer^kin is inserted thnmgh several holes, which allows it to pass around the heel and below the

»1

ankles, bringing the ends in liront over the tougiie. The ends of the tops are laid carefully ovpt one another and wrapped round by the ends of the thonga which liold the moccasins on the feet.

Certain iwrtions of the akin make better footwear than otlior parts. The neck 8kin is too thick ami stiff to allow the creaseH amiind the toes to be properly made; the flanka are too thin; while the neck is useful for tlie tongues, the sides for the bottoms, and the flanks and portions of the back, scarred by the grubs infesting the animal, for the tops and strings.

Moccasins for young children often have a Ream i>arallel with tlie toes and the creasing is thus obviated. Tliose for wearing in the tent or in the dry vicinity of the camp have no tops and are held to the foot by means of a drawstring.

As most of the strain in walking comes upon the tongue, and this imrtion is usually ornamented, it is necessary that it should be of a i^ood quality of leather. A piece of black, blue, or re<l cloth is generally laid over the tongue for ornament. There is sometimes bead work on this portion, but as these peo|>le are not skillful in the artof disjiosingthe many colored beads they are not much used for that purpose.

A single deerskin will make Ave to seven pairs of mmtcaMiuH for an mlult',and as they last but two or three weeka as many as flfteen to twenty-five pairs are ncciesaaiy for each adult.

The hands are protected with niittcas {Fig, 93) made of smoked deerskin. Tlie skin is folded, and along the fold the shape of the mitten is cut so as to leave a part by which the two pieces are Joined, and the edges forme<l in the cutting are sewed together. The thumb is made as follows : A tongue-shaped piece is cut out of the palm and the base of that piece is left as the part to form the under or inner covering tor the thumb. A piece is now trimmed that will fit the place cut out and the two parts sewed together.

The thumb of the Indian is, as a rnle, shorter than that of the white man, and a pair of native-made mittens are quite uncomfortable until

Fia.(n.-lD.lfiuiiiilttpnii.

2«fi THE HUD80S BAY ESKIMO.

tti«* tltuml* iM)rtion has beeu recut and sewed. The wriatfl of the mittuiiH an« 4)fl«a gaudily ornamented with fltrips of red or black cloth. 1 >t'itif;iit) of simple chara<>.ter, Kuch a« lines and (.tosx lines producing lattice-work ficureM, are frequently painted on the back of the mitten. lleiidK in rowH and zigzag lines ornament <^he wrist, and strands of iHMidx arc pendant from the outside scams. The strands are oft^a tii>pt!i1 with tassels of variegated woolen threads. The mittens intended for severe weather are often lined with the thin skin of aftetal reindeer, which has short, soft hair. Qreat exertion often causes the hands to perspire aud moisten the hair, and this tVeexes the instant the mitten is removed from the baud, and is liable to freeze the fingers within it.

The headdress of the men for the summer is often a large cotton handkerchief wound 'turban -fashion around the head to prevent the long hair from blowing over the face. These handkerchiefs are of the most gaudy patterns, aud if they are not worn a simple thong of deer-

Txo.M^Beadedhwdbuid. Nrnrnot.

skin serves the purpose. The girls and newly married wives often make bands of beads, some of which are quite attractively designed, for their lovers or husbands. These bands arc about an iiiHi wide aud several inches long. The ends are lengthened with strips of skin. The band is placed over the forehead and tietl by the strings behind. These headbands arc generally the most intricate designs of bead work which these Indians display (Fig. 9-1). ^

A cap of deerskin is often worn, but it always seems to be in the way, and is used mostly in wet weather. A piece of stiff deerskin is sometimes made into the shape of a visor of a cap and worn over the eyes during the spring when the glare of the sun on the snow produces siich distressing inflammation of the eyes. It is fastened to the head by means of strajts tied behind. The greater itart of the men prefer to go without bead covering. Some who are able and love a dtsphiy of fancy colors have a cap made of red cloth and ornaniente<l with bends worked into extravagant patterns. The cap is a high conical atfair, and from the weight of beads upon it often falls to one side of the head.

TOBKiB.) CLOTHING. 287

The winter roiit (FiKS- ^, W>) worn l)y tlie inalos is of dillereDt l»att*rii fnmi that worn in Humnifir, luiil in niiwle of Kkiii8witli the hair inside.

Two KkiiiH, ono of which forms the biurk of the <:ont tlie other the fn)nt. are sewed by side HcaniH running fnmi the armpit to tlie bottom of the xkirt. On thc> shoiihler a Heam rniiH t^> tlie neck on ea<'h side, the l>a<'k: skin extending hiyh enongb to form the neek while the other skill reaches to tlie neck in front. Here it is slightly eiit out or slit for a diHtaiK-e of several inches to allow the insertion of the heail through the neck hole.

8ometimeH a V- Khai>ed piece i« inserted into the nlit at the front of the ne<'k. To widen the skirts a similar shaped piei;e is let into the middle of the back skin; or it may be put between the side seams for the same purpose. The lK>ttom of the skirt is decorated. {Fig. 97.)

At the h-M-V. of the neck a piece alwnt 8 Inches square is attachefltothegannent. This noiuetimes serves as a collar, and sometimes it gives Jiddi- tiomil protet^tioii by a donblo thickness to the shoulders, very often the first part to feel the effect of the pien-ing winds.

A few of tlie C4»at8 for winter have a h«KMl attiiehed to them (Fig. 98, 9j)) sewed on tlie bat'k of the neck, which when drawn over the head seri'es at once as cap and protectioD.

The collar and hood are invariably made fi'oin the skins on the sides of the head of the deer. If two or more head skins are OMiuired they are sewed into the form of the detir's he^id. The collar is ornamented with fringes cut from the edges of the skin. Sometimes the interscapnlar protection is cut into three or four jmints, each one of which is the ehei'k skin of a deer, and sewed only a portion of the length, the remainder being left free and termiuating with a series of hmg strands or fringes. The sleevesoftheso garments havenothingpeculiur about them.

Ak the Indian easy iimtter ior

13 alirayH in the vicinity of the herds of deer it is sa liim to obtain the skins when in best condition, and from the finer skins saperior garments are made. The shape of the Indian's coat is not so well adapted to afford Itrotectiou as that of tlie Eskimo ; hence, the white men in this region invariably adopt the clothing of the latter in cold weather.

Indians eagerly accept any cast ofl' garment which a white man has worn, and they often procure the clothing of fered for trade. Trousers iire in much demand. Coats are deemed great prizes, especially in the wet seasons when the moisture would certainly ruin their own clothing by causing the hair to fall off or totally destroy

r,... «.-a«r, . wm.« . .«t i.«o«,. ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^f ^^^ taimcd

skin garments. J<'or underclothing the Indian uiau uses an additional i .-■■■-.•'. :':• ^-„ , ■■■-, i ,■ ■' I suit of ordi-

■■•■■■■ :---.-;-.V--.-^ „ ■^.. .1, 1. >i.s, '.'/•■':':■■..

I have Mceii tlie

'DoUII of DmameDtatiDiL !m come to the trading jwst of Fort Chimo in the mid-

Tumim.1 CLOTHING. 289

die of winter when the tliennometer had uat regiHtei-<Ml liifrhi-r tliao 20° below zero for weekH, with no protection for theii' legs except a pair of old buckskiu leg^iogB bo short that the bottom did not reach within -3 or 4 inches of the dilapidated moccasius. The feet were, so far as could be aacertained, chiefly protected by a wrapping of old baling clotti covered with a pair of moceasins which do white man would have been seen wearing. I observed also that no Rddltiotiul clothing nas purchased for the return trip.

The garments worn by the women in the warmer season cousiMts of thin dresses of calico purchased from the traderij. Thin shawls serve to protect the head and shoulders. The feet are incased in moccasins. Some of the women are able to purchase dresses of cloth, and the.se ate cut into a semblance of the dresses worn by the women of civilized conntries. Jt is not rare to see a woman wearing a skirt made from the tanned skin of the deer. The lower jwrtions of the skirt are often fancifully ornamented with lines and 8trii>e*' of paint of various colors, exteuding entirely around the gunnent. A piece of baling cloth is often na.iia^

Eashioned into a skirt and worn.

The females api>ear to be less susceptible to the sudden changes of the summer weather than the men. At least they exhibit less cfnicern about the thickness of their apparel. It iK not unusual to see a woman whose only clothing appears to be a thiii dress of calico. During the winter the women dress in the mostcomfortable skins (Fig. 100), blankets, sbawls, comforts, loggings, and moccasins. During exceptionally severe weather, they appear as traveling wardrobes, doubtless carrying tlieir all on their back, and in some instances presenting a most comical ap- 11 ElH 19

pearunvu US, loaded with clothiog of most miscellanoons character, they vaddlt; over the snow. The wiuter cap is similar to that worn by the men,, hat is not bo peaked. It is an object on which they expend a great amount of labor. The material is nsnally a kind of cloth locally known as Hudson bay cloth, either red, dark blue, light blue, or black. The caps of the men and women are usually made from the better grades of this cloth, while the dresses of the women and the leggings of the men are of the inferior grades.

If the cap in to be all one color, in which case it is always red, the ch}th is cut in two pieces only, and put together so as to produce ft copshape. Sometimes tlve or six pieces are cut fit)m two orthree different colors of cloth and the strips sewed together. Over the seams white tape is sewed to set off the colors. In thecenter of the strip is a rosette, cross, or other design worked with beads, and around the rim rows of beads variously arranged.

The body is covered with a lieavy robe made of two deerskins sewed together. TluB robe is often plain, and when ornamented designs are painted only on the bottom of the skirt. These robes are always of skins with the hair

Fn>.».-M«n'«wli.torioM.wltbhood. ^^ rjjjg fl^j,!, gjj^c

is often rubbed with red ocher while the extreme edge may be painted with a narrow stripe of the same mixed with the viscid matter obtained Irom the roe of a siwcies of flsh. The edge stripe of paint is always of a darker brown than the other colors from the admixture of that substance >vith the earth. This garment is pot upon the body in a manner impossible to describe

CLOTHIKO.

aiiddifticult to uuderaland even when witnessed. Etittheld together by siiiall loopfl of sinew or deerRkiii. A belt aroniid the waist keeps it up.

The women also wear iu winter a Hluevele»s gown leuuhing little below the knees and as higli as the chin. Tbe sleeves are put on !<eparate)y, like leggings. They are UHually made of re<l orblaek ('{atli.

Tbe gown is often extravagantly decorated witli paint. The flesh side of the skiu is rubbed with red ocher, on whicb are painted in describable designs. A strip of deerskin dotted with beads borders the gown, and from the edge of the strip hang striagn of these ornaments, terminating in variously colored tassels of thread.

The leggings of the wonii-n differ from those of the men. Tbey exteud higher and the bottoms cover the tops of the moccasins. They are made of skin or cloth, tbe latter black or red. To cut out a pair of leggings re^quires skill. The cloth is doubled and then cut nearly in a cin-ular form. A size sufifcient to fit the limb is sewed up leaving the crescents shaped remainder a flapping ornament. The "wing8''are often edged with clotb of a difierent color and on the outer border niws of beads complete the decoration. The two creticeuts arc left free, and as the wind separates them they flap most fantastically. They are always worn so as to be on the outer side of the legs. The bottoms of tbe leggings are heavily loaded with nnnierons tows of fancy beads.

Moccasins are alike for both sexes.

As additional prote«-tion from cold the shoulders are covered with a mantle of soft skins from young deer. Blankets purchased from the traders "''*'"

are also sometimes thrown over the shoulders or around the waist.

Children are clad like adults, excepting that their apparel is less carefully made and they often present a disgusting appearance, with their clotliing gla/ed with filth and glist^miug with vermin.

Infants usually have their garments made in the "combination" form. The cap forms a separate piece and is fitted so closely that it is not removed until the growth of the bead bursts the material of which the cap is made.

When traveling men and women smoke or suuff a good deal. Tobacco and a fow other necessary articles are carried in a bag known as *ifiro bag." Tliese are made of elotli and trimmed witli beads, and are often qnite tastefully ornamented.

The detailed flgiires wLiuh I have presented show macb better than any description the designs ased in ornamonting their clothing. Some

Fid. 101 Sealakln hudbud. Neneoot.

of the patterns are rude copies of the designs found u])on cheap handkerchiefs, scarfs, and other printed fabrics. I have already s^wkeu of the headbands worked for the men by their wivea and sweethearts. Such a headband, made of sealitkin pro- (llJI ^^ cured from the Eskimo, is «bowu

in Fig. 101 (No. 3449). The headband is uited to supiwrt the, weight of a load carried on the back, relieving the strain on the shoulders and making it easier to breathe. T)ie band passes over the forehead to the back, where it is attached to the load. Various forms of these headbauds or portage straps are made. Sometimes a piece of birch bark is placed under the Btra|> where it touches the forehead. It is said that the bark dot's not become wet from the moisture indnced liy the severe exertion and thus burn the

Having now given a general description of the clothing of the Nenenot, I may proceed to describe the proceas of preparing the Bkiiis of which this clothing is made. The skins of the deer, which are. to be converted into buckskin and parchment, are laid to one side in a heap, jOBt as they came firom tbe bodies of tlie animals or after they have gone through a proce«s to be Bubseqaently described.

When the skins have laid in this heap for several days decomposition sets in and loosens the hair so it will readily pull out. When the pelt ia ready for scraping it is thrown over a roand stick of wood some 3 or 4 inches in diameter and 3 or 4 feet long, one end of which rests on the ground while the other is pressed against the abdomen of the woman who is doing the work. Then she takes a tool like a spoke shave (Figs. 102, 103, No. 3162) made from the radius of the deer, by cutting a slice off the middle part of tbe back of the bone, so as to make a sharj) edge while the untouched ends serve for handles, and with this scrapes off tbe loosened hair.

The sharp edge of the bone instrument coming against the hairs pushes or pulls them out but does not cut the [ skin.

The flesh side of the pelt is now ' worked to free it from particles of flesh and blood, together with as much of , the moisture iu tbe skin as may be hastily done, for if the person has a great number of skins to attend to she must work rapidly lest they decomi>ose too much and pntrefy.

Where the hunter has great success iu killing deer many of the skins are left uDtouclie<l because there is no one to attend to them and they are thus wasted.

When the pelts of tbe deer or other large animals have been taken from the carcass they are allowed to dry with i""-»«-8ktoi-ck«iingt«i. N«t*not, the adherent flesh, fat, and ligaments until a convenient opportunity occurs to remove those portions from the skin, which umst be moistened to permit them to be more readily scraped off. If the fresh skins are to be cleaned immediately, they are operated npou in tbe same manner as those previously dried. All the skins of fur -bearing animals and those furnishing;; skins for clothing and other purposes must be scra{>ed, otherwise they would soon be soiled by the infiltration of the tat among tbe hairs.

To remove the adherent particles on the llesh side of the akiu a peculiar iiistmmeiit has been devised. The tibia, qf large boiie of the hind leg of the reiiwleer, is ased for this purpose (Fig. 104). The peculiar shape of the bone renders it particularly well adapted to forui a combination of saw, chisel, and gouge at the same time. The lower jwrtion of the bone is cut squarely off. A part of one side of the remainder is cut so as to leave oue side (the inner side of the bone] in the shape of a chisel, having either a straight edge or else slightly rounded. On this edge are cot a number of fine notches, which give the edge of the instrument a serrated form. Some of the bones have a spatula-shaped i)iece of iron or steel cut with tlie serrations upon it and the metal piece set in the cavity of the bone. If the leg of a deer is Qot convenient a wooden handle shaped like thelonghandleof a mortising chisel is fashioned, and to it is afUxed the metal point by means of st^tut lashings (Fig. 105). Around the upper portion of the woodeu shaft a notch or groove is cut, and in this is tied a stout thong in such manner as to form a loop to prevent the hand tVom slipping down the smooth bone when the blow is struck.

The manner of using this iustniment is peculiar and effective. The skin is thrown, with the desh side up, over a stake 2 or 3 feet high driven firmly into the ground. The person kneels down before tlie stake, and when the skin is placed so as to afford a convenient jwrtion to begin upon, an fdgc is taken between the fingers of the left hand and lifted slightly from the ground. Ablow is given with the tool which separates the snb- ■ cutaneous tissue, and by rightly directed blows

this may be separated from the skin entire.

The skin is then laid aside for further working. The subcutaneous tissue is washed and dried, after which it is used for a variety of purposes, such as coverings for bundles of dried meat and other articles.

The skin is worked over with this instrument to free it from a portion of it« moisture and is now ready to receive the tanning material which consists of a mixture of putrefying brain, liver, and fat. They sometimes soak the skin in wine, which is reputed to add greatly to the last- ing qualities of the leather, but the odor of that liquid lasts as long as the skin.

The tanning material is laid on the flesh side of the skin iu a thin layer and by rubbing with the hands it is well worked in. Several

TCRNw-l PREPARATION OF SKINS. 295

hoars or days elapse and the superfluous matter is scraped off. The skin is then scraped and rubbed between the hands, the harder portions with a scraper resembling a small scoop, until all the skin is worked into a pliable condition. If the skin is yet too oily a quantity of powdered chalk, clay, calcined bone, or even flour, is thoroughly rubbed over it to absorb any fatty matter yet remaining.

The skins having the hair on, for clothing, or those intended for buckskin, are treated in this manner. Those intended for parchment are simply rubbed with a quantity of fat, and then allowed to dry in that condition, being of a yellowish or pale glue color.

Where a great number of skins have to be prepared, and some of the more energetic men have as many as two or three hundred buckskins and parchment skins for the spring trade, a constant application to this labor is necessary in order to prepare them in season. This, in a manner, accounts for the number of wives which an energetic or wealthy man may have in order that the products of the chase falling to his share may be promptly attended to.

When the skins intended for sale are selected they are bundled up and covered with parchment skins or the subcutaneous tissue.

The skins intended for use among themselves are generally inferior grades, such as those cut in the skinning process, or else those obtained in the earlier or the later part of the season.

A species of gad fly infests the deer, puncturing the skin on both sides of the spine, and depositing within the wound an egg which in time is transformed into a grub or larva. These larvte attain the size of the flrst joint of the little finger, and at the opening of the spring weather work their way through the skin and fall to the ground, where they undergo metamorphoses to become perfect insects.

A single animal may have hundreds of these grubs encysted beneath the skin, which, on their exit, leave a deep suppurating cavity, which heals slowly. The skin forming the cicatrices does not have the same texture as the untouched portions.

When the skin is dressed it reveals these scars, and of course, the value of the skin is diminished according to their number. The Indian often endeavors to conceal them by rubbing flour or chalk over chem.

The season when the skins are in the best condition is from September to the middle f)f December. The freshly deposited eggs have not yet produced larvje of sufficient size to injure the skin, and the wounds produced by those dropping out in the month of May have healed and h»ft the skin in condition.

Certain skins intended for special purposes must be smoked. The process of smoking tends to render it less liable to injury from moisture. The pyroligneous vapors act as antiseptics and thus at least retard decomposition of those articles most exposed to wet. The tents and foot wear are always tanned with the smoke and this process is

always subsequeat to that of bringing the akins into tlie pliable condition.

The prm-eiwi adopted by these IiidianH in smoking the deerskins ia as follows: The woods are searched for rotten wood of a special character. It must be affected with a kind of dry rot wliicli renders the fibers of a spongy nature. This is procured and thoroughly <lried. The skins to l>e snioke<l are selected and two of uearly the same size and condition I are chotien, and sewed into the form of a bag with the Fhi, i««.-p»ini -lirk, N™™.t. hairy side witliin. Theafter

portions of the skin are suspended from a convenient pole and the head and neck iKirticms left free or open. To the edges of thewe is sewed a cloth, usually a pie^-e of baling cloth, and this is also left oi>eD. The rotten wood is )>laced in a pan or vessel and as it smolders, never burning into a blaze, the pale, blue, pungent smoke is allowed to aseerid within the oivity of the deerskin bag. The <loth is merely to form a conduit for the smoke as the skin should not be too near the Are.

As the pnH'ess continues the skins are inspected between the stitches of the sewiug and when the opera- tion has progreNsod snffleiently ttiey arc taken down. It will now be found that the surface has assumed a lude, clear brown eolur, the shiide of which det>ends on the length of the exposure to the smoke.

The doth is removed and the skins ure immediately folded, with the smoked si<le within, and laid away for several days to season. If, however, tiie skin be left to the inflnonce of the air the coloring matter immediately disappe-ars leading it of a color only slightly different from what it was before it was smoked,

The scars, made by the larvii- of the insects, do not ^'" ""-

"bike" the smoke as well as the healthy portions and so pre.fteiit a pitteil or scaly appearsinee. From the skins having an abundance of the scars are made the tents and inferior grades of moccasins and the tops of the bctterclass of footwear.

The {mints used for decorating

the buckskin garments are ap-

Fi.i.io(i.-p»int.n*k. NeopnoL plied by meaus of bits of bone

or horn of a pex'uliar slia|>e l>est understood from the figures (Figs.

KMS-llO).

Those with two, three or four tines are used for making the complicate<l patterns of parallel lines, and are always made of antler, while the simple form is sometimes of wood.

DECORATION.

A block of wood with one oi* more bowl-sliaped c-avitiea cnt Id it (Fig. Ill) serves to hold the mixed itaiiitH,i>H])e<;ia11y when severfti colors are to he nued in sacceusiou.

Small wooden bowls are also employed. (Figs. 112-113.)

The pigments iiHe<l are procured from dif- f«^ i«.^r-i« ..^.v. N™.»nt.

erent sonrces. From the traders are obtained indigo in the erode eonditioii or iu the for%i of washing blue, vermilion in small buck»<kin bags,

and a few other colors. An abundance of red earth oct-nrs iu several

localities. The pigiueuts

are redured to the finest

posHible condition and

kneaded with the Angers

antil ready for the addi-

Fio.iin.-Pflint»ti<-k. K.ueDot. ^^^^ ^^j. ^^ter often mixod

with a slight quantity of oil or fcillow. A favorite vehi(^le for the paint is the prepared roe of a sucker (<7a((wfomu«) abounding in the waters of the district. The female tish are stripped of the mass of ova which is broken up in a vessel and the liquid strained through a marse cloth. The color is a faint yellow which becomes deeper with age. The fluid is allowed to dry and when i-equired for nse is dissolved in water. It has then a semiviscid consistence and in this condititm is mixed with the various pigments. When a yellowish color is desired the Hsh-egg prepaj-ation is applie<l alone. The albumen gives sufficient adhesive quality to the paint and produce a ^rich glaze, giving a goiKl effect to f the otherwise dull colors.

The process of preparing the crude mineral colors is quite tedious as the attrition is produced by rubbing the substance between two smooth stones, a little water occasionally being added to bold the Fin.ii!-paiiiii^t>. Menruot. particlos together. The prepared

paints are put iu the vessels already described, and wlien ready for use a quantity is taken with the finger and placed in the palm of the hand while the other fingers hold the instrument by which it is to be applied. The paint stick is carefully drawn through the thin layer of paint spreiid on the other palm and a quantity, depending on the thickness of the layer, adheres to the edges of the appliance and by a carefully guided motion of the hand the lines desired are produced. The eye

Fia. m~r»fat ™

alone guides tbe drawiug, however intricate it may be. The artist &eqaently attempts to imitate some of the delicate desigus on a gaady bandana handkerchief or aome sitaUar fabric. Tbe principal source of the liematite is a lake near the headwaters of George's river where it

occurs as a mass of dlHiutegrated rock along the margin. Tbe water has by 6«ezing split great quantities fh>m the mass and when there is a strong wind A-oni the opposite direction the water is often lashed into a blood-red foam.

Tbe Neuenot live, both in summer and in winter, in deerskin t«nt, (see. Fig. 114), which are conatrncted in tbe following manner: A sufficient number of small poles (^ut from the woods aie deprived of their branches and brought to tbe camp site. A location is selected and the )M)les are er(!ct<*d in a circle, with tops leaning towiird the center so aa to form a (H>ne 10 to 14 feet in height, having a diameter at its base of

from 10 to 18 feet. The skins formiug the cover are those of tlie reindeer, and those selected for this purix)se are usually of an inferior grade. A sufficient number are sewed together to form a strip long enough to reach around the poles when set up. Ad the tents differ in size according to the number of people who occupy them, the skins sewed together may be from eight to twelve. The first strij) is made for the lower part of the poles and is attac*hed to them by means of strings listened within. A second strip is made to go around the upper i)art of tlie poles, and is, of course, corresi)ondingly shorter. It is placed last so as to overlap the lower breadth and thus prevent rain and snow from blowing in. ,The door is usually made of one large skin or two smaller ones. It is tie<l to the poles at the upper comers and at the lower has a small log of wood as a weight to prevent it from flapping. The poles at the apex are not covered and through them the smoke from the fire built in the center within ascends and finds exit.

The interior of the tent is aiTanged to suit the occupants. The floor is usually covered with the branches of young spruce, and when carefully laid these form an admirable protection from the cold ground and a soft carpeting.

The women who lay this flooring display great taste, and certain of them are noted for their skill in disposing the branches. The center of the tent is reserved for the fire which is built there among a t&w stones.

The occupants arrange themselves according to the imi)ortance of the place they occupy in the family. The owner or head man is always to be found on the side opposite the fire. This is considered a place of honor, to which all guests who are to be complimented are invited to a seat.

The other members of the group arrange themselves along the sides of the tent, and those who have been adopted into the family occupy positicms next the doorway.

Over the fire may be poles reaching across the tent, and on these will be suspended kettles and pots obtained from the traders. The cooking utensils are few in number, one vessel serving various purposes.

The hunting gear and the skins of animals, together with the articles belonging to the females may be seen suspended from various portions of the interior. Around the edges are the blankets of deerskin, and those bought from the traders, lying in disorder. The (mter edge of the interior is slightly raised above the center, and affords a convenient slope for those who desire to sleep. The occupants always sleep with their feet toward the fireplace, around which there is no brush, lest it be set on fire during sleep and destroy the tent.

They have regular hours for sleeping, but as these are only for a period of short duration, it is not unusual to find half the, inmates asleep at any time a. tent is visited.

The preparation of the food appears to go on at all times, and there

are no regular hourH for partaking of their meals, as each person eats when convenient. The food is taken directly from the i>ot or kettle, and each one helps himself. Forks are not used, and the food is divided with a knife or torn with the fingers.

SWEAT HOUSES.

The Nenenot are in the habit of taking steam baths, for which parpose they use a suda- ory or sweat house, constructed as follows : A number of flexible x)oles of small size, usually willow or alder, which grow to sufficient size along the banks of the streams, are bent to form a hemispherical or dome-shaped structure, which is covered with tent skins. A sandy locality is selected or one free from snow in winter, and a fierce fire is built. When it is well under way a number of stones are thrown into the fire to heat. When the heat is sufficient the fire is removed and the structure is quickly erected over the hot stones and some one from the outside fastens down the edges of the tenting with stones to prevent the loss of heat. A kettle of water previously placed within the bath house is used to pour over the stones, when heat rises to a suffocating degree and produces the desired perspiration. Water is not used to bathe in, though sometimes a slight quantity is poured upon the head only. The bather remains within the hut until the heat has nearly exhausted him.

These baths are frequently taken, and often when he has just started on a journey the head of the family will be seized with a desire to have a bath. Everything must await this operation before the journey is resumed.

An amusing incident occurred at Fort Chimo in the spring of 1882. That season the reindeer were extremely numerous at that place, as they were crossing to go to the northeast to drop the fawns. Oft^n when the herds or bands were panic stricken they rushed among the Indian tents, the houses of the station, and, in fact, everywhere, with yelping dogs and screaming women and children at their he^^ls. An old man and wife were in the sweat house at a time when a very large drove of the deer, in their frantic endeavors to escape their pursuers, headed directly for the bath. Some one screamed to the occupants to look out for the deer. The man and wife made their exit just as a score or more of the animals reached the spot. The man tore up the tenting of the bath house and whirled it in the air, while the old woman cut the most astonishing 'antics. The whole i)opulation witnessed the occurrence and did not fail to help increase the tumult. Signs of former sudatories are quite common along the paths where the Indians have traveled for many years.

HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, ETC.

Each household is supplied with sundry wooden vessels of various sizes (Fig. 115) which serve for buckets for holding water and for drink-

■■1

HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS.

ing cnps. They are made of Rtrips of tbin boards cat from B])rnce or

from )arch troes, the wider strips being usmnchasHix iucheH wide atid

oue-tbird of an iiicli thick. They

are steamed and bent into ovuid

or circtUar forms and the ends k

of the strip overlapping. Then I

they are sewed with split loots f

from those trees. A groove i

cotneartheloweredgeaiidinto G

it is placed a dJeh-Blia]>ed jtiece \

of wood for a bottom. These vessela are identical ii

shape and ftiuction with tiio-so y.^. ii5.-wood«. b-okw. n««««.

manafocture<l by the Yukon river Indians of Alanka.

They also use berry-dishea or battketa like Fig. 116 made from the

bark of the xproce peeled in tlie spring of the year. At thitt time the bark Ih ■ quite flexible and may be bent into tlic desired shape. The oorners are wjweil witli coarse roots from the same tree and tlie rim is strengthened by a «trip of root sewed over and around it by means of a flner

Htraiid. Tliese biinkotH serve a goo<] purtH)8e when the women are picking berries, of which they are inonlinately

fond; and during tliat season it is a rarity

to see a woman or man without a month

stained tlie i>eculiur blue color whicli these

berries impart. Baskets of this shape frequently have a

top of bncksklD sewed to them, closed with

a drawstring, as shown in Pig. 117 (No.

3485). Such things tierve to liold trinkets

and other small articles. |

Large objects are carried in bags, either

long or baskt^t- shaped, mado of the skins of

deer legs. The Jug skins are sci-aped and i-i'i- m— Birr.hi»rkb«Bkrt.Neiienot,

worke<l to a ino<lerate degree? of pliability an<i their cdget* sewed together

until a sullicient number have been joined to make the bag of the reriri. ll«.— nirclilMTk liuk

are uo regular hours for partaking of their meals, as each person eats when convenient. The food is taken directly from the iK)t or kettle, and each one helps himself. Forks are not used, and the food is divided with a knife or torn with the fingers.

SWEAT HOUSES.

The Nenenot are in the habit of taking steam baths, for which purpose they use a suda-ory or sweat house, constructed as follows: A number of flexible poles of small size, usually willow or alder, which grow to sufficient size along the banks of the streams, are bent to form a hemispherical or dome-shaped structure, which is covered with tent skins. A sandy locality is selected or one free from snow in winter, and a fierce fire is built. When it is well under way a number of stones are thrown into the fire to he<at. When the heat is sufficient the fire is removed and the structure is quickly erected over the hot stones and some one from the outside fastens down the edges of the tenting with stones to prevent the loss of heat. A kettle of water previously placed within the bath house is used to pour over the stones, when heat rises to a suffocating degree and produces the desired perspiration. Water is not used to bathe in, though sometimes a slight quantity is poured upon the head only. The bather remains within the hut until the heat has nearly exhausted him.

These baths are frequently taken, and often when he has just started on a journey the head of the family will be seized with a desire to have a bath. Everything must await this operation before the journey is resumed.

An amusing incident occurred at Fort Chimo in the spring of 1882. That season the reindeer were extremely numerous at that place, as they were crossing to go to the northeast to drop the fawns. Often when the herds or bands were panic stricken they rushed among the Indian tents, the houses of the station, and, in fact, everywhere, with yelping dogs and screaming women and children at their heels. An old man and wife were in the sweat house at a time when a very large drove of the deer, in their frantic endeavors to escape their pursuers, headed directly for the bath. Some one screamed to the occupants to look out for the deer. The man and wife made their exit just as a score or more of the animals reached the spot. The man tore up the tenting of the bath house and whirled it in the air, while the old woman cut the most astonishing 'antics. The whole population witnessed the occurrence and did not fail to help increase the tumult. Signs of former sudatories are quite common along the paths where the Indians have traveled for many years.

HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, ETC.

Each household is supplied with sundry wooden vessels of various sizes (Fig. 115) which serve for buckets for holding water and for drink-

HOUSEHOLD UTE»f8IL8.

Fiu. lis.— WoodeD bucket. KeoeDot.

ing caps. The j are made of ntrips of thin boards cnt from sjimce or

fhim larch trees, the wider strips beiug aamachasmx iuehea wide atid

oue-third of an inch thick. They

are steamed and hent into avoid

or circular forms and the eiids

of the strip overlapping. Then

they are sewed with split roots

from those trees. A groove is

cnt near the lower edge and into

it is placed a dish-shajied piece 1

of wood for a bottom. These vessels are identical in

shape and function with those

mauataetared by the Yukon river Indians of Alaska.

They also nse berry -dishes or baskets like Fig, 116 made Irom the

bark of the spruce peeled in the spring of the year. At this time the bark is ■ (luite flexible and may be bent into the desired shape. The corners are sewed with coarse roots from the same tree and the rim is Htrengtliened by a stiip of root sewed over and around it by ineatiR of a finer

strand. These biiskets serve a goo<l pmiKise when the women are picking berries, of which they are inordinately

fond; and during that season it is a rarity

to see a woman or man without a mouth

stained the peculiar blue color wbirh these

berries impart. Baskets of this shape frequently buve a I , PinaK^^ 1 1

top of buckskin sewed to them, closed with r"***^ I j.9M^V ' I

a drawstring, as shown in Fig, 117 (No,

3485). Such things serve to hold trinkettn

and other small urticles. I

Large objects are carried in bags, either

long or basket- shaped, made of the skins of

deer legs. The leg skins are scraped and Km. ii7-Binihi)«rkb»Bkrt,NMioiiDt.

worked to a mo<lerate degree of pliability and t lieir edges sfswed together

until a snilicient number have been joined to make the bag of the reare no regular hoarH for partaking of their meals, as each x>erson eats when convenient. The food is taken directly from the i>ot or kettle, and each one helps himself. Forks are not used, and the food is divided with a knife or torn with the fingers.

SWEAT HOUSES.

The Nenenot are in the habit of taking steam baths, for which purpose they use a suda-ory or sweat house, constructed as follows: A number of flexible poles of small size, usually willow or alder, which grow to sufficient size along the banks of the streams, are bent to form a hemispherical or dome-shaped structure, which is covered with tent skins. A sandy locality is selected or one free from snow in winter, and a fierce fire is built. When it is well under way a number of stones are thrown into the fire to heat. When the heat is sufficient the fire is removed and the structure is quickly erected over the hot stones and some one from the outside fastens down the edges of the tenting with stones to prevent the loss of heat. A kettle of water previously placed within the bath house is used to pour over the stones, when heat rises to a suffocating degree and produces the desired i>erspiration. Water is not used to bathe in, though sometimes a slight quantity is poured uj)on the head only. The bather remains within the hut until the heat has nearly exhausted him.

These baths are frequently taken, and often when he has just started on a journey the head of the family will be seized with a desire to have a bath. Everything must await this operation before the journey is resumed.

An amusing incident occurred at Fort Chimo in the spring of 1882. That season the reindeer were extremely numerous at that place, as they were crossing to go to the northeast to drop the fawns. Often when the herds or bands were panic stricken they rushed among the Indian tents, the houses of the station, and, in fact, everywhere, with yelping dogs and screaming women and children at their heels. An old man and wife were in the sweat house at a time when a very large drove of the deer, in their frantic endeavors to escape their pursuers, headed directly for the bath. Some one screamed to the occupants to look out for the deer. The man and wife made their exit just as a score or more of the animals reached the spot. The man tore up the tenting of the bath house and whirled it in the air, while the old woman cut the most astonishing 'antics. The whole population witnessed the occurrence and did not fail to help increase the tumult. Signs of former sudatories are quite common along the paths where the Indians have traveled for many years.

HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, ETC.

Each household is supplied with sundry wooden vessels of various sizes (Fig. 115) which serve for buckets for holding water and for drink-

'WoodsD backet, KeDenot.

™m.| household utensils. 301

tog caps. They are made of Btrips of thin boards cnt fttim spnice or

from larch trees, the vider strips being asmachasRix iDches wide aud

oue-third of an inch thick. They

are steamed and beiit into ovoid

or circolar forms and the ends

of the strip overlapping. Then

they are sewed with split roots

fh>m those trees. A groove is

catnear the lower edge and into

it is placed a di8h-8hai)ed piece

of wood for a bottom. These vessels are identical in

shape and fiinction with thoHC

manafactured by the Yukon river Indians of Alaska.

They also nse berry-dishes or baskets like Fig. 116 made fivtm the

bark of the sprace peeled in the spring of the year. At this time the bark is ' quite flexible and may be bent into the desired shape. The corners are Hewed with coarse roots from the same tree and the rim is strengthened by a strip of root sewed over and around it by means of a finer

stranil. These baskets serve a good piirjkose when the women are picking berries, of which they are inordinately

fond; and during that season it is a rarity

to see a woman or man without a mouth

stained the peculiar blue color which these

berries impart. Baskets of this shajie fretiucntly have a 1

top of buckskin sewed to them, closed with

a drawstring, as shown in Fig. 117 (Mo.

34$5). Such things serve to hold trinkets I

and other small articles.

Large objects are carried in bags, either

long or baskt^t- shaped, made of tlie skins of

deer legs. The leg skins are scraped and fmiiT.-BirchiBrkbMket.Nnienot,

worke<l to a moderate degree of pliability and their e^lgo.-* sewed together

until a suHivicBt number have been joined to make the bag of there-

— BlnhlATk baaket. Seu,

are no regular hours for partaking of their meals, as each person eats when convenient. The food is taken directly from the pot or kettle, and each one helps himself. Forks are not used, and the food is divided with a knife or torn with the fingers.

SWEAT HOUSES.

The Kenenot are in the habit of taking steam baths, for which purpose they use a sudatory or sweat house, constructed as follows: A number of flexible poles of small size, usually willow or alder, which grow to sufficient size along the banks of the streams, are bent to form a hemispherical or dome- shaped structure, which is covered with tent skins. A sandy locality is selected or one free from snow in winter, and a fierce fire is built. When it is well under way a number of stones are thrown into the fire to heat. When the heat is sufficient the fire is removed and the structure is quickly erected over the hot stones and some one from the outside fastens down the edges of the tenting with stones to prevent the loss of heat. A kettle of water previously placed within the bath house is used to pour over the stones, when heat rises to a suffocating degree and produces the desired i>erspiration. Water is not used to bathe in, though sometimes a slight quantity is poured upon the head only. The bather remains within the hut until the heat has nearly exhausted him.

These baths are frequently taken, and often when he has just started on a journey the hciid of the family will be seized with a desire to have a bath. Everything must await this operation before the journey is resumed.

An amusing incident occurred at Fort Ohimo in the spring of 1882. That season the reindeer were extremely numerous at that place, as they were crossing to go to the northeast to drop the fawns. Often when the herds or bands were panic stricken they rushed among the Indian tents, the houses of the station, and, in fact, everywhere, with yelping dogs and screaming women and children at their heels. An old man and wife were in the sweat house at a time when a very large drove of the deer, in their frantic endeavors to escape their pursuers, headed directly for the bath. Some one screamed to the occupants to look out for the deer. The man and wife made their exit just as a score or more of the animals reached the spot. The man tore up the tenting of the bath house and whirled it in the air, while the old woman cut the most astonishing 'antics. The whole population witnessed the occurrence and did not fail to help increase the tumult. Signs of former sudatories are quite common along the paths where the Indians have traveled for many years.

HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, ETC.

Each household is supplied with sundry wooden vessels of various sizes (Fig. 115) which serve for buckets for holding water and for drink-

HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS.

ingonps. They are made of fttripsof tliin boards cat from spmce or

from larch trees, the wider strips being as mnch as six iucbes wide and

oue-third of an inch thick. They

are steamed and beot into ovoid

or circular forms and the ends |!

of the strip overlapping. Theu I

they are sewed with split roots 8

from those trees. A groove i

cnt near the lower edge and into |

it is placed a dish-shiiited piece 1

of wood for a bottom. These vessels are identical iii

shape and fiinction with those f.^- ii5-w<«d«n bnck^. K.n«.ou

mannfactared by the Yukon river Indians of Alaska.

They also use berry-dishes or baskets like Fig. 116 made from the

bark of the spruce peeled in the spring of the year. At this time the bark is quite flexible and may be bent into the desired shape. The corners are sewed with coarse roots from the same tree and the rim is strengthened by a strip of root sewed over and around it by means of a finer

strand. Ttiene baskets serve a good purtxise when the women are picking berries, of which they are inordinately

fond; and during that Reason it is a rarity

to sec a woman or man witliont a month

stained the peculiar blue color which these

berries impart.

Baskets of this shape frequently have a

top of buckskin sewed to them, closed with

a drawstring, as shown in Pig. 117 (No,

3486). Such things serve to iiold trinkets

and other small articles. |

Largo objeete are carried in bags, either

long or basket' shape<l, made of the skins of

deer legs. The leg skins are scraped and Fm. ii7.—Birohbarkbuket,N<]Deiiirt.

worked t^i a moderate degree of pliability and their edgcw sewed together

until a sufBcient number have been joined to make ttie hag of tbere-

— Blrcbbu-k bislut, Nenenot.

are no regular honrH for partaking of their meals, as each person eats when convenient. The food is taken directly from the i>ot or kettle, and each one helps himself. Forks are not used, and the food is divided with a knife or torn with the fingers.

SWEAT HOUSES.

The Nenenot are in the habit of taking steam baths, for which purpose they use a suda-ory or sweat house, constructed as follows: A number of flexible poles of small size, usually willow or alder, which grow to sufficient size along the banks of the streams, are bent to form a hemispherical or dome-shaped structure, which is covered with tent skins. A sandy locality is selected or one free from snow in winter, and a fierce fire is built. When it is well under way a number of stones are thrown into the fire to heat. When the heat is sufficient the fire is removed and the structure is quickly erected over the hot stones and some one from the outside fastens down the edges of the tenting with stones to prevent the loss of heat. A kettle of water previously placed within the bath house is used to pour over the stones, when heat rises to a suffocating degree and produces the desired perspiration. Water is not used to bathe in, though sometimes a slight quantity is poured upon the head only. The bather remains within the hut until the heat has nearly exhausted him.

These baths are frequently taken, and often when he has just started on a journey the head of the family will be seized with a desire to have a bath. Everything must await this operation before the journey is resumed.

An amusing incident occurred at Fort Chimo in the spring of 1882. That season the reindeer were extremely numerous at that i)lace, as they were crossing to go to the northeast to drop the fawns. Often when the herds or bands were panic stricken they rushed among the Indian tents, the houses of the station, and, in fact, everywhere, with yelping dogs and screaming women and children at their heels. An old man and wife were in the sweat house at a time when a very large drove of the deer, in their frantic endeavors to escape their pursuers, headed directly for the bath. Some one screamed to the occupants to look out for the deer. The man and wife made their exit just as a score or more of the animals reached the spot. The man tore up the tenting of the bath house and whirled it in the air, while the old woman cut the most astonishing 'antics. The whole population witnessed the occurrence and did not fail to help increase the tumult. Signs of former sudatories are quite common along the paths where the Indians have traveled for many years.

HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, ETC.

Each household is supplied with sundry wooden vessels of various sizes (Fig. 115) which serve for buckets for holding water and for drink-

TDw™*.! HOUSEHOLD UTEKBIL8. 301

ingcnps. They are made of RtripB of thin boards cnt fhrni aprnce or

from larch trees, the wider strips beiug as mnch as six iuches wide and

oue-third of an iiidi thick. They

are steamed and bent into ovuid

or circular forms and the ends

of the strip overlapping. Then

they are sewed with split roots

from those trees. A groove is

cnt near the lower edge and into

it is placed a dish-shaped piece

of wood for a bottom.

These vessels are identical in shape and function with those mauofactared by the Yukon riv

They also use berry-disltes o

Wooden bosket Neusnot.

ircbbuli buket, Xeuenat.

er Indians of Alaska, r baskettt like Fig. 116 made from the bark of the spruce peeled in the npring of the year. At this time the bark is ' quite flexible and may be bent into the desired shape. The corners are sewed witli coarse roots from the same tree and tlie rim is strengthened by a strip of root sewed over and around it by menus of a flner

strand. Theite baskets serve a good pur[)ose when the women are picking l)errieu, of which they are inordinately

fond; and during that season it is a rarity

to see a woman or man without a mouth

stained the peculiar blue color whiib these

berries impart. Baskets of this shape frequently have a 1

top of buckskin sewed to them, closed with

a drawstring, as shown in Fi^r. 117 {No.

3485). Such things serve to hold trinkets

and otiier small articles. i

Large objects are carried in bugs, either

long or buskot- shaped, mtulc of the skins of

deer leg.s. The leg skins iire Hcrape<l and Fm. nT.-BirehbarkbMkrt, nmbiioi,

worked to a moderate degree of pliability urid tlieir edges sewed together

until a sulUcient number have been Joined to make the bag of the teqoired size. This bag is used to hold the elothiug, fm-a, aud other valu- ables. When on a trip they are invariably carried. If the journey bo performed on foot the two eiidn are tied with a thong and the bag thrown over the shoulder.

In preparing food Btone pestles of various sizes were formerly used of the shape shown in Fig. 118. These pestles are now mostly out of date and superseded by east-iron ones with steel faces, procnred from the traders. The metal pounders, however, are so heavy that they are (fbjeetionable to people who have to make their burdens on the portages as light as possible.

Spoons to lift pieces of floating meat from the hot liquor in which it in cooked, are made of reindeer autler aud of wood. The pattern of these spoons is shown in the figures (Fig, 119). One shape (No.3^351, Fra. 118.— stone pvatir. Figs. 120, 121, 122), was perhaps copied from a dvil- Keneaot. ^^^^ ladle. Pots are suspended over the fire with pothooks of reindeer antler hung up by a loop of thong. These pothooks are also made of wood.

Like all other Indians, these i>cople are inordinately fond of tobacco for smokiug, chewing, and snnff; the latter, however, is used only by aged individuals, especially the females, whose

countenances show the Fm. llB.-WoodenBpnonorUdle.Nnnenol.

effect in a manner quite disgusting. The men consider a supply of tobacco of as much importance as the supply of ammunition for the pros- ecutiou of the chase. The first request upon meeting an Indian is that you furnish him with a chew or a pipe full. Little satisfactory intercourse can be had V with him until be is mollified by n, gift of tobacco. Theflrst thing that an Indian receives when arriving at the trading post is a clay pipe and a jtlug of tobacco. The pint of molasses and the three or four hard biscuit (which have received the local name of 'Ganailiau padlock,'* doubtless because they are so difficult to open), are of secondary consideration. When the spring arrivals are camped

Piu. Isa^Wovdeu »iK>

Flo. lai^Woodi

at the station it is not aattsmt) for several to c<nitribute a niimlier of plugs of tobacco and a gallon of inola»seH. Tliemt are boiled together and then water in added to the miztare. This villaiuouH c4impotind is druuk until a state of stuitvf'action endues. The muddled creature under tLe influence of that li<iuor seems like an idiot. The eS'ecit is terrible and does not wear away for several days. The pipes used for smoking are made of stone obtained fironi river iiebbles, usually a fiuegrained compact sandstone. The color of this stone varies from a dark reddish brown nearly the color > of clotted blood to a lighter shade of that color. The red stones often have spots of every size and Bhai>e of a yellowish drab which form a strange contrast with the darker colors. The darker tlie stone the less spotting it will have. The best of all tho pipes aud those most valued are of greenish sandstone having strata of darker colors which appear as beautifiil graiuiug when the pipe is cut into form and polished.

Other piites are of bard slate and very dark witliout markings. All the material is hard and the effect of the lire within renders them harder and liable to crack if used in very cold weather. These pipes vary but little in shape {I have figured three — 1*1. xxxvui and Fig. 123 — to show the pattern), but there is considerable difference in size. The largest ones are made of the greon stone, while the smaller ones are made of other stones. The stem is of spruce wood and is prepared by boring a small i hole through the stick lengthwise and whittling it down to the required size. It is from 4 to 8 inches long and is often ornamented with aband of many colored beads.

The rough stone for a pii>o is selected and cliipped into crude form. Tlie successive operations of wearing it down to the desired size are aircomplishod by means of a coarse file or a harder stone. The amount of labor bestowed ui>on a pipe consumes several days' time before the final polish is given.

The value set upon these pipes is according to the color of the stone, as much as the amount of labor expendetl in making them. They are always filthy, partly on account of the bad quality of tobacco used. The ashes and other accumulations within are removed by means of a bodkin-sliai>ed instrument of bone or horn. The back of a broken horn comb is a favorite material for making a decorated pipe-oleaoer (Fig,

Vm. 122.-Wondf

124). Tliu (tmamentatioiiH conuUt of cracifonn and qaadrate flgnreBon the bundle. The tobii«co uBed for smoking is the comuioiie»t black plug of very inferior quality, soaked with molasses and licorice. This moittt tobacco is cut into pieces and a coal of Are placed upon it. They prefet'this quality, and purchase the lighter and drier kinds only to serve us kindling for the darker sort.

They do not know how to brew or ferment liquors of any kind, and as the importation of intoxicants is wisely prohibited, the native has no opiH)rtuuity to indulge in his craving for liquors, the supply of which was plentiftil in former years, A spruce beer is made by the serrauta of the company for the holidayB,^nd a taste is sometimes given to a

• . 123 — Stod* Mbtcco pipr.

favorite Indian, who is so easily alt'ected that a pint of this mild beer will send him reehng »iid happy to his tent, where it soon becomes known that be<-i' is to bo bad. The importunities for drink are now so ftwpicut^ that the barrel mast be emptied of its coutents in order to avoid the constant beggings for it.

All tlie Indians of this regi<m use birch-bark canoes, of the pattern shown in the figure (PI. xxxix, from a photograph; the collection also contains six woollen ntodels of these canoes). The style of canoe used by the Little Wliale river Indians of the eastern side of JIndson bay has very much more sheer at the bow and stern than those used in the

TURNER! TRANSPORTATION BY WATER. 305

valley of the Koksoak. The canoe of each individual dififers from others according to the personal taste or need of the maker. The requirements are that the canoe shall be able to transport himself and family, together with the household property, whenever it is desired to change camps. Some of the canoes are small, others large, often i>ossessed by two or more individuals in cx)inmon.

These canoes are constructed in the following manner: Trees are selected which when split will afiford a number of straight-grained slats free from knots. These slats are shaved to the required thickness and laid aside to seiirson. They are 3 or 4 inches wide and less than one-third of an inch in thickness. The exterior or longitudinal strips are x)laced so that their edges will touch each other. The inside strips or ribs are placed about their own width apart, and of course are placed at right angles to the longitudinal slats. They are thinner than the side strips and become almost like shavings at the bow and stern. The two layers of slats form a kind of shell upon whi(*h the skin of bark fits tightly. The first process with the bark is to free it from the outside scaling layers; the next is to soak it for several days in fresh water to soften it; otherwise, when dry it would crack like an eggshell. When it has macerated a sufficient time it is taken out and laid over a form of clay or other earth, which has previously been roughly molded to the shape of the interior of the canoe. The bark is now sewed along the edges of the strips with roots of the spruce tree. These are long and tough, and resemble splits of rattsin when properly prepared for the purpose by splitting and shaving with a knife. Various sizes ot these root-s are used for the different i)ortions. The threads are also soaked in water until they become so flexible that they may be tied into a knot without breaking.

When the bark skin rudely conforms to the shai)e of the mold of earth, the rails or round strips of wood along the inner edge of the canoe are placed in position and the ends of the bark strips laid over it and sewed. A second rail is now laid upon the first and drawn down to it by means of the root thongs. A piece of wood is shaped for the bow and one for the stern and inserted in position, and the end seams of the canoe are sewed over these pieces.

The interior is then ready for the longitudinal strips, which are placed at the bottom first and gradually built up on each side until the rails are reached. The ribs or transverse strips are next placed in position* Five or more <;rosspieces, or thwarts, are fastened to the side mis to give stiffness to the sides and to prevent collapsing, and they may be set either below or above the rail. The greatest care must be exercised to give to both sides of the canoe the same shape and to have the keel evenly balanced. This is rudely regulated by the eye during the process of construction. After all the strips are put in, the boat is aUowed to season and dry. This causes the bark to shrink, and while drying the whole is frequently inspected to discover any splits or cracks in 11 ETH 20

the bark. The Indian often wets the (;anoe, lest it dry too rapidly and split under the tension. Wlien the form and make are satisfactory the seams are smeared with a mixture of spruee gum (or resin bought from the traders'), mixed with seal oil to render it less easily broken. This mixture is while hot laid upon the dry surface with a small paddle.

After the gum has seaM)ned for a day or so the canoe is put upon the water and teste<l for its speed and seaworthiness. All leaks and needed

repairs are inunediately attended to, and it is at length ready for use.

Many persons have not the skill needed to construct a (tanoe, and they employ those who have had experience and ari^ known to build an excellent boat.

There are two kinds of canoes in use among those Indians, differing only in the sha]K' of the stern and prow. The original form was nejirly tlat ahmg the rails and had th(» bow and stern but little turned uj). Of later years interccmrse with some of their neighbori^ has induced them to modify the nearly straight edge canoe into an intermediate shai)e between their own and that of the Kast Main Indians, whose canoes are very much turned up, and are acknowledged to l>e far superior vessels to those of the Ungava Indians.

As the forests in the vicinity of Fort Ghimo do not contain birch trees, and none are found until the headwaters of the Koksoak are reached, where they are too small to afford bark of sufficient size and thickness, the Indians are compelled to procure the bark from the traders, who import it from the St. Lawrence river and gulf stations to Fort Chimo. It comes in bundles large enough to cover a single canoe of moderate size. If a canoe is to be very large two bundles are required. The value of a black fox skin purchases a bundle of bark.

During the spring mcmths, while the weather is somewhat warm, the men are engaginl in preparing the strips and bark for the canoe which is to convey them up the river when the ice breaks and the river is open for navivj^ WJ The paddle has a single blade with a handle scarcely v^-,iii^ more than half the length of the paddle. It is used with i'ic». 125. -Spoon for|^j^]^ hauds, the strokes being given on alternate sides as canoe. \i glides througli the water.

When it is necessary that a portage be made the voyager takes the canoe uiM»n his shoulders by letting one of the center thwarts rest on the back of the nock. The hands are thrown bju'kward to hold up the end of the canoe from tlie ground. A headband, such as I have already described, of birch bark or cloth, often fancifully ornamented with

5-:

beads, fits over the forelieud and is attat^hed to the sides of tlie naiioe by means of tbongs, whifli prevent the caitoc from slipping olf the shoulders as the itoiter quickly traverses the nstrrow pathway throiigli the trees and bushes. Tbe ground is often so uneven utid rnagli that long detours have to be iriade by the porter, while the rest of the party may go a 8hort«-'r pnth to the i)laco where the eanoe will again be placed i» the water. A part of the nwessary equipmeuts for a trip in a eanoe are pieces of bark, root threatls, and gum to repair any damage resntting from an accidental contact with a stone or snag.

Without the birch-bark canoe the ludiaii would have difficulty in obtaining his living, an it is even more necessary than the sled, and nearly as useful as tbe snowshoe.

The jmddles used with these canoes are about 5 feet long, having a blade about 34> incites long and 4j wide. The handle terminates in a sort of knob. The paddle referre*! to, for applying the gum and grease to the seams of tbe canoe, has the shape of a flattened s^mon with rounded bowl (Fig. 125). The gum is heat<!d, and while hot is poured along the seams and pressed into the interstices of the stitcher with the paddle. When a patch is to be apiilied over a fracture or broken place in the bark, it may bo made to adhere by the sticky properties of the gum alone, If the distance to be traveled is not great. A fire is then mitde and the wax heated; tbe piece of bark is edged with the gum and pressed firmly over the rent. A sei^ond coat is applied over the edges of thobark,Bfterthe first has become cold. A few minutes suflice to repair an ajiparontly alarming hole.

-ToboKitmii

For carrying loa<lB over the snow all the ludiaus of this region use large tttetis (Figs. 12(i, 127) culli'd ti'i-bas-kHn, which is a wore] equivalent to tlie well known name "toboggan." Tbcne Hled», as nmid among the Indians under considenition, differ very grt'atly in size acconling to the nse for wliich they are desigiiwl.

The method of coriatraction ih »h follows: A ti'ee is selected as free from knots as iiossible and two iMtards of less than an inch in thickness are hewed or siilit fi-oni it. These boards are further dressed t«the reqnired thi<-kiiess and W4dtli. The final oiteration consists in shaving thent down with a " crooked knife" to little more than half an inch in thicknexs. One edge of each board is then straightened and the two I'dges pl.iced together. The length is rarely more than 13 feet. The front end is steamed or heated in a kettle L of hot water until the boards |be‹omi› flexible The ends I are turned np to the desired I curve and then bent over at 7 the end, «here they are held m i)osition b> a transverse bar of wood This bar is stightlv concave on the side next the sled and giv es the nose a curved shape The curved jwrtion of the front may rise ivs much as 18 inches above the surface over which the sled travels. At the place where the curve begins a sec^^ond transverse bar is placed, and at a distance behind it a third, fourth, and fifth bars are fastened. Sometimes an additional bar is to be found on the upper side of the bottom. These bars are all fastened to the two bottom boards by means of tiiongs of parchment deerskin, and mu through holes on the bottom boards. On the under side the thongs are let into places (ait out between the two holes, so that the thongs will not be worn when passing over the snow. They are usually fastened in four places, one at each end of the bar and one on each side of the crevice between the edges of the two boards. From the nose of the first bar run a pair of very stout thonga or else twisted sinew, which are drawn tight enougli tu prevent the nose and curve fn>m straightening out. From the end of the first

NEHENOT 8H0WSH0E

bar tu till! last oau on the heel nf the sled is run n Htout twisted thong under th» end of each bar, whieh there has a notch cut on the under side for the line to psvas through. This line serves to strengthen the Bides and prevent the two boards from slipping past each other when passing over iuetiualities of the ground. At the ends of the first bar and connected with the side lines are two long stout thongs of twisted Hkin, often 25 feet long. Those are used a.s traces, by which the sled is dragged. The shape of the bottom, is often fashioned after all the remainder of the work has been done. The width of the nose is rarely more than 9 inches; at the first bar it is about 14 inches and as much as 18 inches between the first an<l second bars. From the widest part to the heel it gradually narrows to a width of 5 to 7 inches.

Two boards are used, as one of sufficient width could not be obtained from the foi-ests of that region. Besides, a single board would certainly split, while two obviate this daii(;er and render the sled less stiff. In passing over rough plax^es the sled must bend to conform to inetinalities or else it would break. In the constructhm of this vehicle the In- dian displays much skill and a perfect knowledge of the re- (luirements of the uuse. The i load is pliiced so as to disiN>se the weight on that jiortion which will bear chiefly on the ground. The great length of the sled enables the ]iersoii to guide it more readily.

When on a journey theyouiiger women and the men drag it along. When the men return

to the station t.. trade they F,a.i2»-K««i»otB«,w.ho*.iEgK.i«.

alone <lrag it. A small dog is

sometimes hitehed lo it by a thong, but an the animal is ao small and light, it affords but little assistiuice. Tlie aiiinnU, however, would certainly wander oil' in s<!areli of game along the track, aud by being hitched to the sled is kejit within bounds.

All the household eficcts, consisting of tent, cooking ut^nisils, clothing, and other iirtich-s are placed on the sled when the i>eopIe are changing camp.

Tlie Nencnot iire skilletl in the manufacture and u.<te of snowshoes, of which four styles are used, viz: The "swallow-tail," "beaver tail," "round end," and '-single-bar" (Figs. ili«, iLlt). The frame is of wood, nearly an inch wide and half an inch thick, usually in two pieceji, joined

by long lap splices wrapped with deerskin thougs^ either at the sides or ends of the shoe. lu the single-bar shoe the frame is on one slip, spliced at the toe. Birch is the favorite material for snowshoes, but is rarely to be had except by those Indians who ascend the Koksoak to its headwaters, so that spruce and larch are generally used.

The arrangement of the toe and heel bars of the snowshoes will be best understood from the figures. They are usually placed within the frame, and set in mortises in the inner side of the frame, before the wrapping of the ends of the frames has been drawn together; otherwise the bars could not be placed in the holes to receive them.

The netting is made of deerskin, with the hair removed, and allowed to dry into a condition usually known as parchment. This is cut into strips of variable width, depending on the particular use for which it is wanted.

A needle of bone, horn, or iron (Fig. 130) is used for netting the snowshoes. The shape of the implement is flat and rounded at each point, to enable the needle to be in$ed either backward or forward. The eye which carries the line is in the middle. Various sizes of needles are used for tlie dif- A erent kinds of netting, of which the meshes differ greatly

y in size.

The line is generally 10 to 20 feet in length, and when the netting is completed it somewhat resembles the seating of a cane-bottomed chair. Each individual varies his work according to fancy, but^as the netting between the bars is nuule of coarser line, more compactly woven, there is less difference there than at the toe or heel.

The netting of the toe is of finer line and meshes than the middle or between the bars; while that between the heel bar and heel of the snowshoe is finest of all.

The netting between the bars holds the joints of the frames where they lap over each other.

The toe and heel S])aces of netting are held in place by the line pjissing under the threads which are wrapped around the bars from the netting between them, and again are fastened or slipped through loops of thread or line which are let through the frame of the snowshoe. 8hoe neetUe, Near the center of the toe-bar is a space left in the netting between the bars to admit the toes of the wearer and allow them free action while walking. This space is semicircular and is inclosed by several strands of line passing over the toe-bar and forming looi)8, which have the diagonal lines of the netting passed around them and drawn tight.

The snowshoe is held to the foot by a wide buckskin thong attached at the semicircular space back of the toe-bar. The ends must be far

NENENOT SNOWSHOE- BEA^^It-TAIL.'

enough apart to admit tlie widtli of the foot as tiir a.s tlie toes, imd must be then drawu down to prevent the foot from pushing b>o far forward and atrikiug against the toe -har. The loop passing over the toes must be sliick enough to alhiw free movement of the foot. When the strap suits the foot it is passed around the heel of the wearer aud tied sufficiently tight to give ease and comfort. If too tight, the weight soon presses the tendon of the heel. If too loose, it drops down and the toe slips from under the toe band.

The single-bar snowshoeM aie not much nsetl, because they are eonewhat difficult to make. Tbey are of two styles. One has the bar directly under the center of the foot. It is wide, and should beRtrong enough to sustain the weiyibt of any wearer. The other style is where the single bar is at the front of the toes, which pattern differs from

Fin. 131.— WoocW anowabue, Little Wbale Tirn.

the "beaver-tail" style only in the absence of the heel bar. This pattern is considered the easiest of all to wear and walk in when once learned. Tlie foot straps are i>,\uet1y like those of the common kinds.

The single liar in the middle of the snowaboe renders it a matter of great discomfort until one is accONtonied bi it, lus the straps are simply loops for the toe and heel. This pattern has been already figured. The largest snowshoes meiimtre as much as 28 inches across and 3 feet in length.

Some of the Indians acquire great expertuess in the nse of these snowshoes, and are able to run quite rapidly with them. The width of the shoes causes one bi straddle widely to allow one snowshoe to pass above and over the other. Care must be exercised that while bringing the rear foot forward the frame does not strike tlie ankle and proihice a serious bruise. In ascending a hill the toe must elevate the snow-

8hoe to avoid a stumble. In desceuding the body must be thrown well back or a pitch heels over head ensues, and sometimes the frames strike the back of the head.

To put them on the feet the foot must enter the loop from forward toward the rear, and when the loop is on the foot the latter must be turned within the loop and then passed under the toe band.

Everybody wears snowshoes — men, women, and children. Without them travel in winter would be an imi)ossibility, and as the capture of furs is made in winter and the ground to be hunted over must of necessity be of great area, the snowshoe becomes a necessity as much as the canoe in summer.

I collected two peculiar pairs of snowshoes, made of flat spruce boards (Fig. 131). They are shai)ed exactly like netted snowshoes of the "beaver tail" pattern, and the arrangement of the foot strap is the same as usual.

They came from the Little Whale river Indians, who informed me that they were worn on soft snow.

In the spring of the year, when the snow is rapidly melted by sun, the netted snowshoes become clogged with slush, rendering the weight very fatiguing. Wooden snowshoes are admirably adapted for that season of the year, and may be made in a few hours, while the netted ones require several days' assiduous labor. The Indians of the Koksoak val- ley do not use the wooden snowshoes.

WEAPONS.

In former times these Indians used the bow and arrow exclusively, but they have now nearly discarded these weapons for the guns which they procure from the traders.

The bow and arrow is, however, still used to kill ptarmigan, liares, and rabbits. The bow (Fig. L*i2) consists of a l)iei'e of larch or spruce wood of 4 to 6 feet in length. It is only slightly narrower and thinner at the ends, and nearly an inch thick and an inch and a half wide at the central \yoT- tions. But little ingenuity is displayed in the construction of these weapons. They have considerable elasticity, and if broken it is easy to obtain a i>ieco of wood from the forest and fashion another. The string is a strand of deerskin, twisted or rolled. It is rare to find a bow that has a single string.

The arrows are usually 2 feet or 30 inches long, and feathered with three ptarmigan feathers. (Figs. 133-136.) The bead is usually an egg-shaped knob, terminating in a slender ]>oint which soon breaks oft*.

This weapon is used for small game, as the <»ost of amrau- ^ilinil^t**^' nition is too great to spend it upon game as readily procured

- -■-*■'/

V /

NENENOT SNOW8H0E- ROUND-END."

tuhtkb.]

WEAPONS.

by this cheaper method. The ludiaii is very expert in the use of the bow and arrow, and is able to kno<;k over a ptarmigan or croaching hare every time at 25 yards. The force with which the arrow is projected is astonishing. I have seen a ptarmigan rolled for many yards amid a perfect cloud of feathers when struck by the arrow. It oflten tears the entire side out of the bird.

In former years the arrow did great execution among the deer in the water or deep snow banks among which they floundered when driven into them by the Indian who, on snowshoes, was able to travel where the deer sank nearly out of sight.

Fig. 133.— Arrow, N(|peuot.

Fio. 1:m. Arrow,

PlQ. 185.— Arrow, Nenenot,

Fio. 136.~Arrow, Kenenot.

Among the Indian boys it is yet a favorite amusement to shoot small birds with the bow and arrow Small crossbows also are used by children. They have doubtless been msule after those brought by some white man. The children have great sport with these bows.

The spear, already referred to, for killing the swimming reindeer, is shown in Fig. 137. The wooden shall is (> feet long, and the steel point, which is made of a flat file beaten down to a quarter of an inch square, is 11 inches long. It is set into the end of the shaft and fastended by a whi])ping of sinew.

The w<»ai>on is held by the hand in a manner peculiar as well as uncomfortiible. The closed hand over the butt end of the weapon is so

placed toward

as to Lave the tiuger8 upward and the outside of the hand the poiut, this rather awkward grasp enables the person to let go of the weiipon in case of threatened disaster resulting from a misdirected thrust. The collection also contains three iDodela of deer spears, Noa. 3205-3207. Tliese are often also used as arrows to ahoot at larger game when the Indian is out hunting ptarmigan, haren,and rabbits. A buQ- gry wolverene or a famished wolf would prove troublesome to kill with the blunt arrows. These models differ from the larger spear only in s

The Little Whale river Indians use a [teculiar spear for kOling white whales. (Figs. 138, 139). It is modeled after the E kimo harpoon, but has no "loose abaft," or

rather, the fore shaft and loose shaft are in one piece, ami has a circu. lar wooden disk fitted to tlic butt of the shaft, whidi takes the placeof the bladder float, and serves to impede the motions of the animal wheu

Btruck. Beindeer antler is siibstitnted for the ivory of the Eskimo weapon. The bludes arc of copper or iron and riveted in. Thene spears are 8 or 10 feet long,

llie snare (Fig. 140) forms one of tlie less imgwrtant tnettiods of prncnring these animals. It is of parchment made from the skin of the reindeer cut into thin narrow thongs. Several of these stramls, usually three, are plaited together to form a layer; and of these luyers three are plaited together to torm the snare line. It often is made, however, of three single strands entscmiewhat wider and creased so that they will lie well when the three are plaited. The mure strands the greater the

flexibility of the line, but as there must be a certain amount of si ness to hold it in iwsition the many strands must be woven mure tightly together. The length varies from 10 to 20 feet, and at the end is a loop funned by turning the strands back and splitdng them. Throngh the hmp the other end is passed, and the nooae is made.

When a herd of <k'er is discovered in a favorable locality the people of the vicinity areintormedand hasty preparations are made.

The effort is to cause the deer to pass through a nai-row defile containing Imshcs, The snares are then placed in position by tying the free end of the line to a suitable tree and suspending the noose where the hea<lN or antlers will become entangled. Some are placed so that when the foot is lifted the uoosc is carried along and tightens on it.

The people surround the animals, and at a given signal shout and create the greatest din, to confuse the creatures, which plunge toward the place where the snares are set. One or two hunters concealed in that locality appear suddenly and further confuse the now panicstricken animals, which rush in every direction before their foes. They become immeshed in the nooses and are held until their throats are cut or they are choked by the cord.

It frequently happens that two deer will be caught in a single snare. The Indians assert that it is a most ludicrous sight to witness two sturdy bucks caught by the antlers in a single snare. They appear to accuse each other of the misfortune, and struggle terribly to fifee themselves. In the animals which are strangled by the noose the congested blood distends the veins and renders the flesh very dark.

Previous to the general use of guns the snaring method was of greater importance than at the present day. Even now the Indian does not lose any opportunity of employing the snare.

Some of the snares are made of tanned skin, which is softer and is often ornamented with strands of beads attached to the end of the line. Some of them are colored red, with a mixture of vermilion and hematite earths, thinned with water.

I have already described the methods of hunting the reindeer and of C/apturing small game.

The beaver is not plentiful in the Ungava district, and not until the headwaters of the Koksoak and the lakes near the source of George's river are rea(*.hed are they to be found at all, excepting occasional stragglers.

The Indians have few of the skins of this animal to sell at the trading post of Fort Chimo.

The methods of cai)ture differ in some respe^^ts from those elsewhere emi)loyed.

The habits of the beaver are so well known that a statement of their manner of life is unnecessary.

The food supply north of latitude 55^ is so limited in quality and quantity that the scarcity of tlie animals is due entirely to the absence of the food necessary for their existence.

When the dams and structures made by the beaver are discovered the people devise means to cai)ture it.

If it is convenient to get at the holes leading to the structure, which are always under water so deep that it will not freeze to the bottom, they are closed with a stick of W4)od and an opening made in the top of the hut. The animal is then caught by the hind legs or tail and lifted out. It seldom attempts to defend itself at first. As soon as the hunter can do so he jerks the animal out, and with a blow on its head kills it. If he should pause for an instant from the time the lijind is put on the

aDJmal uatil the death blow is giveu, that very in»tant he certainly will be bitten witli teeth so sharp and powerfnl that the ringers may be snipped from the hand as though with a pair of shears. The wound thns iuflieted in often very severe and ditlicult to heal, as the bit« is not only cuttingbtit cmshing.

Where the water can be drainetl from the pond or lake in which tlie beavers' hat is built, the Indians often leave it high and dry by damming off the supply and allowing the water to drain away. As soon as the house is out of water the occupant emergen and is killed. Beavers are sometimes shot while sportiugon the water during moonlight nights.

Some of the animals are captured by means of a net of peculiar coustructioii. This net is of fine deerskin thongs netted iuto a circle nearly 2 feet in diameter, with meshes about an inch square. The meshes in the outer ro threaded upon a stont thong of deerskin, in length about | fourtimesthediameterof the net. Tliis thong is now tied | at the ends, and over one end thns tied is slipped a ring made of spruce root and wound with sinew to strengtbea I it. This ring is about an inch in diameter, only sufBcient j to allow freedom of the ends of the line. It is fanteued ■ to one of the meshes of the net in order to keep its place. I

Where the water iw too det^p and only a single beaver ia in the lodge the net is carefully spread over the mouth of the exit so placed as to form a purse into which the head and neck of the animal will be thrust as it leaves the hut. The mouth of the purne now tightens fix)m the ring slipping along the string, and thns strangles the animal or | (i| else causes it to drown as it struggles to escape from the tightening cord.

The net is said toboaveryeftective means of capturing the beaver and will succeed when it has become too wary to be shot on the surface of the water.

The flesh of the beaver is considered valuable food by these people. They prize it highly and prefer the flesh *^'"~ of the female to that of the male.

HISCELLAKEOUa IMPLRHENTB, TOOLS, BTC.

One ofthemost importantttiolsused by the Nenenot is the "crooked" knife (Fig. 111). These instrumenta are made from steel flies or knife blades. They are of various sizes depending on the amount of material at hand. The Indian takes a piece of nietAl and grinds one side of it flat and smooth; the other is edged like a drawing knife. The blade is now heated and bent to the desired curve. Some are more bent than others and some have only the point bent to one side. The few left-

THE HUDSON BAT ESKIMO.

banded persons have the blade formed to snit themselves. It is set in a handle carved from tliu user and bent upward Uke the blade. At the end of the batidle is generally to be fonnd a thong on which a wooden button is placed for attachment to the belt, as no mivn ever goes off on a journey without this knife, however short may be the distance.

The handle is held in the hand at right angles or lUMxias the body and invariable drawn toward the user. It is employed for all purposes of whittling or shaving wood and one would be surprised to observe what large strips will separate when started with this apparently frail blade.

The strips and slats of canoes, paddles, snowshoes, and in fact everything that can be cut from wo«>d, are made with this knife. It retfuires much skill to guide the blade so as to cut the wood evenly ; and to this end the thumb, which is placed upon the outer extremity of the handle, must steady the blade. The strain of the blade upon the handle is very great, and it must be securely held by means of stout thongs wrapped around it.

The crooked knife is a form of instrnment in use among the Indians and Eskimo alike, and one of the few implements which those widely differing i)eople have in c

Awls (Fig. 142) are made of steel or iron. The back or spring of a X)ocketkiiife or a portion of a snnill file appears to be the favorite material for forming them. They are usually chisel-shaped and have rectan- gular corners. The handle into which the metal is fasttmed is generally of deer horn. The shape of the handle varies from a Y shape to that of a crescent.

These tools are constantly required for piercing holes in the various woods used in manufacture. Articles of simple construction the Indian prefers to make for himself, rather than pay an extortionate price to the trader. He is able to accomplish remarkable results with rude tools of his own make.

Snow shovels are made of wood and are much used, for during the winter, when the snows are constantly iiccumulating around the camps, the octcupants necessarily remove some to form a pathway from the door of their tent, and as snow forms an admirable protection, it is thrown or banked up around their tents to prevent the wind from blowing under. In the spring nearly all the aged people carry one of the wooden shovels to clear away a path or as a help to walk while the slushy snow is so treacherous. Fig. 143 represents a common form of wooden snow shovel. These are often painted with vermillion or indigo.

Fig. 144 shows a special form of snow shovel designed for cleaning the ice from the holes through which the people fish. It usually has a blade made from the brow antler or one of the broad palms from the horns of the reindeer. The horn portion is attached to the wooden shaft or handle by means of thongs running through holes bored for that purpose.

The ice-picks (Fig. 145) used in times gone by were pieces of reindeer liorn or bcme, shaped like a narrow mortising chisel and attached to staffs of wood. The chisel or pick was fastened to the staif by means of stout thongs to prevent a side movement from the groove into which it was set. The upper end of the staff was at times shod with bone or horn so as to be available for a walking staff.

The ice-pick of the present day has a piece of iron or steel substituted for the horn or bone; but, being heavy, it is not so often carried from i)lsice to place. An Indian will in an incredibly short time pierce a hole through 3 feet thickness of Ute with it. A white man can not equal them in this work. fiq.145.

Combs for the hair are purchased f i om the traders. They are highly prized and are kept in little birchbark bags. For cleaning out the dirt which collects cm the comb the tail of a porcuipine is used. The needles or spines are picked out of the tail, leaving the stiff, coarse hairs, which serve the purpose of cleaning the comb quite well. This tail is usually appended to the comb-case.

The imtivtw HometimeH make wuodeii combH like the one Kbown in Fig. 14fi, ill imitation of tboxe purcliaxed.

Aft«r A woman'H liair has been combed half of it is collected <m eacb side of the head and rolled or wooDd up on small pieces of board (Fig. 147) niniilar in shape to t!ie " winders" on which darning or knitting cord is wrapi)ed. Strands of beads are now placed u[>on these to bold the hair in place.

A remarkabkt object is shown ID Fig. 148. It is one of a pair of boards procured ftom one of the Little Whale river Indians, by whom they are nsed to assist in swimming. One board is held in eacb band and used as a paddle to push the swimmer along. Indians able to swim are scarce. I have not seen these boards in use, and am not able personally to speak concerning their alleged function.

The Hsh-hook shown in Fig. 140 bas a barb of steel or inm. It is on the smaller hooks made of one of the ribs of the larger trout.

lb, irlthblrckbuk

The boys have no consideration for the females of their own age, but f treat tbem as inferiors and fit for nothing but to be subjects of almost constant annoyance and persecution. When a number of boys collect they are sure to maltreat the women, even those advanced in years, and appear to delight in any oi>iM>rtunity to sub- Fiu. iti.— itoitniifbrwiniiu'ihRir. ject them to the rudest mischief. If a woman ventures Ut peep from the tent in snromer a shower

of water is sure to be flung on lier by some boy. In winter bdowballing ib equally annoying, aod when parties of women go to tlie woods to get fnel tbe pat-k of boys is sure to waylay tliem as they return. If the boys can separate tlie women their fun is cotn])lete; their dresses are torn and their bniidlcs of fuel scattered. They often retaliate, however, and strip the clothing from some unfortunate boy who is compelled te returu to camp in a nude condition, much to the

Fia. 148 Swlmi

amusement of the iieople. This form of disgriure appears te be the most severe which can be inflicted upon a male; and the jokes to which be is aft<^rward subjeeted keep him the object of ridicule for many days. Besides practical jokes upon women, running, jumping, wreHtling, and practicing with the bow and other weapons suited te their age, appear to be the principal amusements of the boys. The girls have never been observed to play at games of any kind. Their chief occupation is to keep away from the boys. While walking out tlie girls generally toss stones or chips in the air and strive te keep at least two of them np at once. The Eskimo often practice this also, and, as it appears te be a general source of amusement among the Innnit, 1 suspect that the Indian borrowed it from them. Wrestling appears to be the principal test for physical strength and severe contests ojten engage the stronger individ- uals. They wrestle in the Eskimo < fashion, and frequently indulge in trials of strength with these iieople. As would be expected, the stronger Eskimo are always tlie victers. All these contests, whether among themselves or with the Eskimo, are carried on with the best of good humor.

II ETH 21

Fia lU.-FlKhhoo]

FK0nVAL8.

Fea8t8 are given now and then U> celebrsite 8acces8 in hunting and Himilar achievements.

In 1883 I waH invited to attend a leant of fnrn t4> be given by one of the mo8t energetic of the Indians. We repaired to the tents spread on the top of a high wall of rock a few rods from my house. As I approached the scene I observed a tent of different construction. It was nearly oval at its base and had a diameter of about 18 feet and a length ofiiabout 25 feet. The top was drawn to an apex resembling the common roiif of a house. The entrance to the structure faced southeast. On a i>ole, supi)orted with one end on the apex of the tent and the^ther resting on a i)ost, were numbers of skins of various animals — wolves, wolverine, beaver, otter, foxes, and muskrat, together with a number of the finest reindeer skins. The sound of the drum was heard within the structure and as I approached the door the noise ceased. I paused and was invited to enter. Immediately two old men next the drummer moved to one side and motioned me to sit down on the pile of deerskins reserved for me. It was evident that the feast had been in prog- ress for some time. Around the interior of the structure groups of men were idly dis)>osed, some reclining and others standing. Not a word was spoken for some time, and this gave me opportunity to look around. The floor was covered with boughs from the neighboring spruce trees, an*ange<l with unusual care, forming a soft carpeting for those seated within. I saw a number of piles of deerskins and several small heaps covered with cloth. To break the silence I inquired if the drum was tired. A smile greeted the inquiry. Immediately an old man came forward, tightene^l the snare of the drum, and arranged the string, suspending it from one of the tent poles at the proper height for use. He then dipped his fingers into a vessel of water and sprinkled a few drops on the membrane of the drum-head to prevent it from breaking under the blows to be delivered. The performer then seized the drumstick with the right hand and gave the membrane a few taps; the transverse cord of twisted sinew, holding the small cylinders of wood attached to it, repeated the vibration with increased emphasis. A song was begun and the druni beaten in rythm to the monotonous chant of oho, oho, etc. Three songs with tympanic accompaniment followed. The songs appeared alike and were easily learned. In the meanwhile the guests were treated to a strange-looking comi)ound which hiui lain hidden beneath one of the cloths and is known as ^^pemmican.^' I was solicited to accept a pie(;e. The previously assembled guests had either brought their own bowls and saucers to eat from or else appropr.ated those available. Not to be at a loss, one of the young men remarked that he would And one. From among the accumulated filth around one of the center iM)les supporting the structure a bowl was produced. The man coolly t<M)k the handkerchief which was tied around his forehead to kee]) his matted hair from his face and wiped out the interior of the

TUWffR.l FESTIVALS AND GAMES. 323

bowl, and placing a piece of the pemmican within it, hande<l it to the attendant whose duty it was to offer it to me.

I, however, found it quite inedible. Other guests constantly arrived and some departed, made happy by their share of this compound of rancid tallow and marrow with a due admixture of pounded dry meat of the reindeer. I soon departed, and attempte<l to take the remnant of the pemmican with me. This was instantly forbidden, and information given me that by so doing I should cause all the deer to desert the vicinity, and thus make the i)eople starve. 1 explained that such was not my desire, and after wishing continued prosperity and enjoyment, I made my way out. I was then informed that the feast would c<mtinue for a time, and wind up with an invitation to the women, who had hitherto been excluded, to come and eat the remnants left by the men. At the end of two days thereafter the feast concluded and a dance took place. In this performance there was nothing remarkable. The men sang songs and kicked up their heels, while the women shrugged their shoulders as they swayed their bodies from right to left, and assumed various other postures, although their limbs were apparently kept in a rigid position, occasionally uttering their plaudits as the men made humorous compliments to their generous host.

This feast was given by one who had been unusually successful in the capture of fur-bearing animals, and, to prove his wealth, displayed it before the assemblage and gave a feast in consideration of his ability. Other feasts of a similar character occur, and differ from this in no special feature.

The principal source of amusement with the men is the game of draughts or checkers. While the men are in the tent or on the hillsides awaiting the approach of bands of deer their idle moments are employed over this game. Neither hunger nor the sight of game is sufficient to distract them, so intently are they absorbed.

The game is played as in civilization, with only slight differences. 1 am not aware that wages are laid upon its issue. Some of the men are so expert that they would rank as skillful players in any part of the world.

Small boards that may be carried iu the hunting bag are used on trips to while away the tedium of the long winter evenings with only the light of the flickering Are of the dry limbs of spruce. Far into the night the players engage, and are only disturbed when one of their tired companions starts from his sleep to relate a wondrous dream and have it expounded by the listeners, who sit aghast at the revelations.

They also have a game corresponding to " cup and ball," but it is played with different implements from what the Eskimo use, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 15(). The hollow cones are made from the terminal phalanges of the reindeer's foot. The tail tied to the end of the thong is that of a marten or a mink. The player holds the peg in one hand, and tossing up the bones tries to catch the nearest bone on the

TURNER.]

MUSIC AND GAMES.

A second hoop, two or three times as wide as the first, is prepared and fitted over the barrel and head. It is pushed down as far as the elasticity of the membrane will allow, or about half the width of the top hoop. Through the outer hoop have been made a number of holes and corresponding but alternate holes made in the farther edge of the barrel of the drum.

Through these holes a stout thong is threaded and passing from the edge of the barrel to the outer hoop is drawn so tightly as to push the inner hoop along the outer circumference of the barrel and thus tighten the membrane to the required degree. The outer hoop now projects an inch or more beyond the membrane and thus protects it firom injury by careless handling.

Across the membrane is stretched a sinew cord on which are strung, at right angles to the cord, a number of barrels made from the quills of the wing feathers of the willow ptarmigan. Across the underside of the membrane is stretched a similar cord with quills. These serve the purpose of a snare on the drum. The stick used for beating the drum consists of a piece of reindeer horn cut so as to have a thin and narrow handle a foot in length and terminating in a knob more than an inch long and as thick as the portion of horn permits. The drum is suspended from the poles of the tent by means of thongs. The performer tightens the snares, and sprinkles a few drops of water on the drumhead lest the blows, cause it to split under the strain. Nothing is done, nothing contemplated without sounding the drum. It is silent only when the people are asleep or on a tramp from one locality to another.

If a person is ill the drum is beaten. If a person is well the drum is beaten. If prosperous in the chase the drum is beaten; and if death has snatched a member from the community the drum is beaten to prevent his spirit from leturning to torment the living.

The drumbeat is often accompanied with singing which is the most discordant of all sounds supposed to be harmonious.

The drums used by the Little Whale river Indians (Fig. 152, No. 3223) differs greatly in construction from those made by the Ungava Indians. The size is rarely so great, seldom exceeding 22 inches. These drums have two hciids or membranes fitted on the barrel and secured by means of a single hoop for each head. The two hoops are then connected by the tightening strings.

FiQ. 152.— Drum, Little Whale river.

/

THK HUDSON BAY ESKIMO.

The membranes are invariably made of deer skin in the parchment condition and not of tanned skiiiu. The snares or thongs across the heads are finer and have pieces of wood instead of (juilla as "rattlers." The drumstick is a, piece of reindeer horn cut as before described ; or else, as if to add to the din, a gun-cap I box is pierced through from I side to side and a few peb- [ bles or shot plaaration of the lid and box. Tliis makes a distracting noiae. Battles for the children (Fig. 153) iirc made of a hoop of wood bent to a circular form and covered with two heads or membranes. Within it are placed a tew pebbles or Rhot, to produce a rattling sound when

Flo. 1S3.— Rutlfl, yeneaot.

Km. IM. -Tmreet. nlndHr. bock.

the membranes are dry. A cord attiiched to the circumference enables the rattle to be sunpeuded from the tent-pole in front of the child for whose amnFtciiieut It ih intended. Other toys are made tor the children,

Fto. ISS.— Target,

hot they were not easy for us to obtain. I'l. XLill represents a doll, dresftetl in a woman's full suit of clothes. The boys amuse themselves by shooting with blunt arrown at images of reindeer, bucks, does, and fowns, cut out of Hat boards stuck up in the snow (Figs. 154, 155).

tlAtNTH ANNUAL llKI

DOLL, INDIAN WOMAN, FULL DRESS, NENENOT.

POLKIX)RR.

Dnriug the long winter nights or during the periods of cold or indement weather in which the Indians may not venture out, they sit around the fire and relate stories intended for the instruction as well as entertainment of the younger ])eople. The older men have a great stock of these stories, and many of the w^omen are noted for their ability in entertaining the children, who sit, with staring eyes and open mouth, in the arms of their parents or elders.

The following stories came to me directly and not through the medium of another white person, an<l probably I am the only white person who has heard some of them. I have endeavored to give them as nearly in the form of the original as the differences between the English and the Indian languages will ])ermit.

Story of the icolrerene and the brant, — A wolverene calling all tbe birds together addressed them thus: ^^Do you not know that I am your brother! Oime to me and I will dress you in feathers.'^ After having dressed them up he ma<le wings for himself and said: ^'Now, brothers, let us fly.^ The brant told tbe wolverene, " You must not look below while we are flying over the ]x>int of land when you hear a noise below. Take a turn when we take a turn."

The first turn they t4)ok the wolverene did not l(H)k l>elow, but at the second turn they took, when they came over the point of land, the animal looked beh>w when he heard the noise of the shouting Indians and down he came like a bun<lle of rags.'

All the Indians ran up to him an<l exclaimed '^There is a brant fallen down.'^ One of the old Indian women got hold of him and began to pluck his feathers off, then \o disembowel him. She of course smelled the honible stench an<l cx(;lainied, <^This goose is not tit to eiit as it is already n)tten ! '' She gave the carcass to one of the children to throw away. Another old woman came np and inquired, *• Where did you throw the brant g(M)se t4)? How could it be rotten f It is not long since it was killed." The former old woman replied to her, '*Go and see, if you do not believe.-- She went and found nothing but the dead wolverene.

Story of the icolrerene, — A wolverene was running along the seashore and perceived a number of geese, brant, ducks, and loons sitting in the water a short distance off. The wolverene addressing them said, **Come here, brothers. I have found a pretty bees' nest. I will give it to you if you will come on shore and have a dance.'' All the birds went on land. The wolverene said, '*Let us have a dance and I will sing. Shut your eyes an<l do not open them until we aredcme dancing. He began to sing, '*A-ho'u-mu-hou-iiiu'-nni'-hfim'." The last word was

■When the IndiaDn p<'ro«ive a flcwk of thcM* Urant tbry luttko a loud clamor, which fri^htenn the Uzda to much that they loHt) their nenHi'M. fall to thi* urounii ami nw. thiiH killed. Th<^se birda are OiAf teen iu the npiiiig migratioiin ami then in i^rcat niiiltitiidcrt, while lu the fall it is rare to see eveu A tbi^ individual, aH they have a <lifferuut n^tum rout4* than in spring.

POLKLORK.

Dnriug the long winter nightM or during the periods of cold or inclement weather in which the Indians may not venture out, they sit around the fire and relate stories intended for the iustrHcttion as well as entertainment of the younger people. The older men have a great stock of these stories, and many of the women are noted for their ability in entertaining the children, who sit, with staring eyes and oi)en mouth, in the arms of their parents or elders.

The following stories came to me dircitly and not through the medium of another wiiite i)erson, and probably I am the only white person who has heard some of them. I have endeavored to give them as nearly in the form of the original as the differences between the Englisli and the Indian languages will )>ermit.

Story of the icolrerene and the brant. — A wolverene calling all the birds together addressed them thus: <^Do you not know that I am your brother! Come to me and I will dress yon in feathers.'^ After having dressed them up he ma<le wings for himself and said: ^'Now, brothers, let us fly.^ The brant tohl the wolverene, " You must not look below whOe we are flying over the i>oint of land when you hear a noise below. Take a turn when we take a turn."

The first turn they took the wolverene did not look l>elow, but at the second turn they t(H>k, when they came over the iK)int of land, the animal looked below when he heard the noise of the shouting Indians and down he came like a bun<Ue of rags.^

All the Indians ran up to him an<l exclaimed '^There is a brant fallen down." One of the old Indian women got hold of him and began to pluck his feathers off, then to <lisembowel him. She of course smelled the horrible stench and exclaiine<l, ^^This goose is not tit to eat as it is already n>tten ! "' She gave the carcass to one of the children to throw away. Another old w<mnui <*anie up and inquired, ^- Where did you throw the brant g(K>se to f How c^mld it be rotten! It is not long since it was killed." The former old \voman replied to her, ^'Go and see, if you do not believe." She went an<l fcuind nothing but the dead wolverene.

Story of the itolvemw. — A wolverene was running along the seashore and perceived a number of geese, brant, ducks, and loons sitting in the water a short distance off. The wolverene iuldressing them sai<l, **Come here, brothers. I have found a pretty bees' nest. I will give it to you if you will come on shore and have a dance." All the birds went on land. The wolverene said, '*Let us have a dance and I will sing. Shut your eyes and do not open them until we are done dancing. He began to sing, '*A-ho'u-mu-h(m-niu'-niu'-hftm'." The last word was

Wfa‹ni the Indiann ptTceivc a fl(M›k of tbeHe hrant tbcy tiinki' n loud oluiuor. which friKht«iiH the bixils ao much that they lone thoir Hennon, fall to the uroinid and nre thiiM killed. These birds are mAf teen in the spring; mi/^atioua and then in great iiiultitiidert, while in the fall it is rare to see even A tin^ Individual, as they have a different return route than in spring.

Tuiim.l FOLKLORE. 327

FOLKI^RR.

During the long winter nightn or daring the periods of cold or inclement weather in which the Indiana may not ventare oat, they sit aroand the fire an<l relate stories intended for the instm(*tion as well as entertainment of the yonnger i>eoi)le. The older men have a great stock of these stories, and many of the women are noti^ for their ability in entertaining the children, who sit, with staring eyes and open mouth, in the arms of their parents or elders.

The following stories (;ame to me directly and not through the medium of another white i)erson, and probably 1 am the only white person who has heard some of them. I have endeavored to give them as nearly in the form of the original sis the differences between the English and the Indian languages will iiermit.

Story of the tcolterene and the brant, — A wolverene calling all the birds together addressed them thus: ^'Do you not know that I am your brother t Come to me and I will dress yon in feathers." After having dressed them up he ma<le wings for himself and said: '^Now, brothers, let us fly.^ The brant told the wolverene, " You must not look below while we are flying over the i>oint of land when you hear a noise below. Take a turn when we take a turn."

The first turn thev tiK)k the wolverene did not look l>elow, but at the second turn they took, when they came over the point of land, the animal looked below when he heard the noise of the shouting Indians and down he came like a bundle of rags.*

All the Indians nin up to him and exclaimed '^There is a brant fallen down." One of the old Indian women got hold of him and began to pluck his feathers off, then to disemb<»wel him. She of course smelted the horrible stench an<l exclainie<l, ^'This goose is not tit to eat as it is already rotten ! " She gave the carcass to one of the children to throw away. Another old woman ranie up and impiired, ^* Where did you throw the brant goos<? to! llow crmld it be rotten! It is not long since it was kille<l." The former old woman replied to her, ^'Go and see, if you do not believe." She went an<l found nothing but the dead wolverene.

Story of the icolverme. — A wolverene was running along the seashore and i)erceived a number of geese, brant, ducks, and loons sitting in the water a short <listan(e otl. The wolverene luldressing them said, •*Come here, brothers. I have found a pretty bees' nest. I will give it to you if you will come on shore and have a dance." All the birds went on land. The w<>lverene said, ''Let us have a dance and I will sing. Shut your eyes and do not oi>en them until we are done dancing. He began to sing, **A-ho'u-mu-hou-niu'-nni'-liftm'." The last word was

Wheii the Indiann p<'rccivo a tIcM'k of thvno hrant tbty niukf* a loud clamor. iKtiich fri};ht«nH tho biidaso mach that they loHi" th»ir HenH«'ii, fall to thr i;roiiiid and art^ thiia killed. These birds are only Men iu the spring mi^atious and then in great uitiltitiideH. while in the fall it is rare to see even ft lingle individual, as they have a different return rouUt than in spring.

TUMm.) FOLKLORE. 327

POLKLORR.

Dariug the long winter nightn or daring the periods of cold or indement weather in which the Indians may not venture out, they sit around the fire and relate stories intended for the instm(*tion as well as entertainment of the younger i)eoi)le. The older men have a great stock of these stories, and many of the women are noted for their ability in entertaining the children, who sit, with staring eyes and open mouth, in the arms of their parents or elders.

The following stories <rame to me directly and not through the medium of another white person, and probably 1 am the only white person who has heard some of them. I have endeavored to give them as nearly in the form of the original as the differences between the English and the Indian languages will })ermit.

Story of the itolrerene and the brant. — A w^olverene calling all the birds together addressed them thus: ^'Do you not know that I am your brother! Come to me and I will di*ess you in feathers.^' Aftor having dressed them up he ma<le wings for himself and said: '^Now, brothers, let us fly.^ The brant told the wolverene, " You must not look below while we are flying over the i>oint of land w^hen you hear a noise below. Take a turn when we take a turn."

The first turn they took the wolverene did not l(K)k l>elow, but at the second turn they took, when they eanie over the i)oint of laud, the animal looked beh>w when he heard the noise of the shouting Indians and down he came like a bundle of rags.*

All the Indians ran up to him and exclaimed '^There is a brant fallen down.'' Que of the old Indian women got hold of him and began to pluck his fe^ithers off, then to <lisenibowel him. She of course smelled the horrible stench and exclainie<l, '^This goose is not fit to eat as it is already rotten ! " She gave the carcass to one of the children to throw away. Another old woman came up and impii red, ^' Where did you throw the brant goose to? How crmld it be rotten? It is not long since it was kille<l." The former old woman replied to her, ''Go and see, if you do not believe.*^ She went an<l found nothing but the dead wolverene.

Story of the itolverenv, — A wolverene was running along the seashore and perceived a number of geese, brant, ducks, and loons sitting in the water a short distan(*e ot!'. The wolverene addressing them said, •*Come here, brothers. I have found a pretty bees' nest. I will give it to you if you will come on shore and have a dance." All the birds went on land. The wolverene said, *'Let us have a dance and I will sing. Shut your eyes and do not open them until we are done dancing. He began to sing, *'A-ho'u-mu-h(m-niu'-nni'-hftm'." The last word was

nVhen the Indiann perceive a tiwV of theoo brant tb«ty iiiako h loud clamor, i^'hich frifchteiiH tho blx^a ao much that they luHe thoir Henfi(>H, fall to tin* ground and art* thiia killod. Tht^ae birds are only Men in the spring migrations and then in great multitudoH. whilo in the fall itia rare to see even ft lingle individual, as they have a different return rouUr than in spring.

Tuwn«.) FOLKLORE. 327

POLKU>RR.

DuriDg the long winter niglitn or daring the periods of cold or indement weather in which the Indiana may not venture oat, they sit around the fire and relate stories intended for the instruc^tion as well as entertainment of the younger peoi)le. The older men have a great stock of these stories, and many of the women are noted for their ability in entertaining the children, who sit, with staring eyes and open mouth, in the arms of their parents or elders.

The following stories <^ame to me directly and not through the medium of another white person, and probably I am the only white person who has heard some of them. I have endeavored to give them as nearly in the form of the original as the differences between the English and the Indian languages will })ermit.

Story of the wolverene and the Want. — A wolverene calling all the birds together addressed them thus: ''Do you not know that I am your brother! Come to me and I will dress you in feathers." After having dressed them up he ma<le wings for himself and said: ''Now, brothers, let us fly.^ The brant told the wolverene, " You must not look below while we are flying over the i>oint of land when you hear a noise below. Take a turn when we take a turn."

The first turn they t<K)k the wolverene did not l(K)k Mow, but at the second turn they t(K)k, when they came over the point of land, the animal looked below when he heard the noise of the shouting Indians and down he came like a bundle of rags.*

All the Indians ran up to him an<l exclaimcnl '^There is a brant fallen down.'' One of the old Indian women got hold of him and began to pluck his feathers off, then to <lisembowel him. She of course smelled the horrible stench and exclaimed, "This goose is not fit to Ciit as it is already rotten ! " She gave the carcass to one of the children to throw away. Another old woman <'anie up and inquired, ''Where did you throw the brant goose to? How crmld it be rotten? It is not long since it was killed."' The former old woman replied to her, "Go and see, if you do not believe.'' She went and found nothing but the dead wolverene.

Story of the icolrerem'. — A wolverene was running along the seashore and ])erceived a number of geese, brant, ducks, an<l loons sitting in the water a short distam*e of!'. The wolverene addressing them saicl, ''Come here, brothers. I have found a pretty bees' nest. I will give it to you if you will come on shore and have a dance." All the birds went on land. The wolverene said, *'Let us have a dance and I will sing. Shut your eyes and do not open them until we are done dancing. He began to sing, '*A-ho'u-mu-h(m-niu'-mu'-hftm'." The last word was

■When the Indiann p<rccive a ticM-k of theM' brant tbcy iiiako u loud clunior. which frifchteiiH the Uxdaaomai'h that they h>M() thmr HeiiAcii, fall to thi icnjiind uiid htv. thus killed. Thcae birda are only Men in the Bpring niigrationM hiuI then in great niultitiidoH, while in the fall itia rare to aee even ft lingle individaal, an they have a different rettini route than in Hpring.

I

,!

] ■

Tumm-l FOLKLORE. 327

POLKLORR.

DnriDg the long winter nigbtn or daring the periods of cold or inclement weather in which the Indians may not venture out, they sit around the fire and relate stories intended for the instm(*tion as well as entertainment of the younger people. The older men have a great stock of these stories, and many of the women are noted for their ability in entertaining the children, who sit, with staring eyes and open mouth, in the arms of their parents or elders.

The following stories (*ame to me directly and not through the medium of another white person, and probably I am the only white person who hiis heard some of them. I have endeavored to give them as nearly in the form of the original as the differences between the English and the Indian languages will (lermit.

Story of the wolverene and the brant, — A wolverene calling all the birds together addressed them thus: ^'Do you not know that I am your brother! Come to me aind I will dress you in feathers.^ Aftor having dressed them up he ma<lc wings for himself and said: ^^Now, brothers, let us fly.^ The brant told the wolverene, " You must not look beh)w while we are flying over the i>oint of land when you hear a iioise below. Take a turn when we take a turn."

The fi.rst turn they took the wolverene did not l(K»k l>elow, but at the second turn they took, when they came over the point of land, the animal looked below when he heard the noise of the shouting Indians and down he came like a bundle of rags.*

All the Indians ran up to him and exclaimed ^^There is a brant fallen down.'' One of the old Indian wonien got hold of him and began to pluck his feathers oft*, then to (lisembo>vel him. She of course smelled the horrible stench and exclaimed, "This goose is not tit to eat as it is already rotten ! " She gave the carcass to one of the children to throw away. Another old wtmian came up and inquired, "Where did you throw the brant goose to ! llow could it be rotten! It is not long since it was killeii." The former old woman replied to her, "Go and see, if you do not believe." She went an<l found nothing but the dead wolverene.

Story of the wolverene, — A wolverene was running along the seashore and perceived a number of geese, brant, ducks, and loons sitting in the water a short distance off. The wolverene a<ldressing them said, "Come here, brothers. I have found a pretty bees' nest. I will give it to you if you will come on shore and have a dance." All the birds went on land. The wolverene said, "Let us have a dance and I will sing. Shut your eyes and do not open them until we are done dancing, lie began to sing, "A-ho'u-mu-hou-niu'-nni'-hftm'." The last word was

^When the Indiann perceive a flo4-k of these brant they make a h>uil clamor, which frij^hteiiH the birdH so much that they lose their HenneH, fall to the tn^)Uiid and are thuB killed. These birds are mff Men in the Hpring mipp:ation8 and then in great multitudes, while m the fall it is rare to aee even ft single individual, oa they have a different return route than in apring.

9109 oft«;ii repeated (accompanied with the act of the wolverene snip- |iifi^ off the heads of the birds) that the loon opened one eye and saw the hi*^4lleMK ducks kicking. The loon ran to the water and exclaimed, •♦Our brother has killed us! " The wolverene ran after the loon but the IrKMi dived under the water and came up a distance off andcrie<l out, **A ho ho ho ho ho ho!" The wolverene screamed, "Hold your tongue, yiiii red-eyed fowl." The wolverene returned to where the ducks had tHfen kille<l; plucked their feathers off and cleaned them; put them into a large kettle and boiled them.

While attending to the cooking he saw a whisky-jack (Us' ka tcon) (PerinareuH canademi^) flying about. The wolverene took a firebrand and threw it at the bird, exclaiming, "You will be telling on me, you long-tongued bird ! " The jay flew away and told the Indians that "Our brother (wolverene) has killed a lot of ducks and has them cooked," adding, "I think he is sleeping. I'll show you where he is if you will come." The Indians replied, "We will go, for we are very hungry." They went and found the wolverene asleep alongside the pot. The Indians ate all of the meat of the ducks. After they had finished the me^t they put the bones back into the kettle and went away. The wolverene awakened after a time, took his dish and said to himself, ^*Now, I shall have my dinner." He poured all the broth into his dish and found nothing but the bones remaining. In his surprise he said, ^^Surely, I have been sleeping a long time; the meat is all boiled away." The jay told him that he had told the Indians. The wolverene said, "Why did you tellt you stupid bird; I was keeping a nice piece of fat for you.' You will not, now, get it for your impudence."

The deer and tJie squirrel, — A reindeer called all the mammals and birds together and announced that he would give names to all of them. When he came to name the squirrel he inquired of the little creature what name it would prefer. The squirrel replied that it would like to have the same name as the black bear. The reindeer smiled and informed the squirrel that it was too small to have the name of the bear. The squirrel began to cry and wept so long that his lower eyelids became white.

The young man who went to live with the deer, — A young man one morning told his old father that he had dreamed the night before that a deer had asked him to come and live with them. The old father replied, "That is a good sign; you will kill many deer after that dream." The young man went away to hunt, and while out he saw a large herd of deer. A young doe from the band ran up toward him, and he was about to tire at her when she said to him, " Do not tire, for my father has sent me to you. Please put up your arrows." She came nearer and informed liim that her father had sent her to ask him to come and live with the deer forever.

iThe jay is well known to be particularly fond of fat of any kind, benoe the tempting morsel withheld WM a scarce for ftitare reflection.

The yoang man inquired, " How could I live with you when it is upon deer that I livef I live in a tent aud can not live outside. I can not live without fire. I can not live without wat^r." The doe replied, " We have plenty of fire, water, and meat; you will never want; you will live forever. Your father will never want, as there will bo enough deer given to him.'' The man consented to go with them. The doe pointed to a large hill aud said, ^^ That is our home." She told him to leave his deerskin mantle, snowshoes, and arrows on the ground, but to keep the bow. As they were walking along they came to a big valley. She informed him that that was their path. The two went toward the steep hillside and found the ground to be covered with deer. Some of the deer were frightened when they saw the man coming, and started to rnn. The doe's father said to the Mghtened deer, ^^ Do you not ])ity the poor Indians who have to hunt for their living while we do not!" Wlien the young man and the doe came up, the father of the doe addressed the young man, asking if he was hungry. The man replied, *' Yes." The father then gave him a piece of nice meat and some fat. After the man had finished eating the father inquired, '^ Is your father also hungry!" The son replied, *' Yes. "

The old buck informed the young man that they would give the son's father some deer tomorrow. After the young man had slept out one night his father, in the morning, went out to look for his son, but found only his mantle, snowshoes, and arrows, which had been cast aside the day before, and also found the tracks in the valley leading to the home of the deer under the hill. The old man returned to his tent and told the other Indians that his son had gone away to live with the deer. The old man then said, << Let us make snares and we will yet take him, as he can not run as fast as the deer." The Indians prepared a number of snare nooses and went to the valley to set them among the bushes on the path. The father of the young doe saw what was going on in the valley and told the rest, " Let us go and give the old man some deer." He told the young man to come with them. The man replieil that he could not accompany them, as he would be left behind in no time while they were running. The old buck instructed the young man to keep among the rest of the deer and he would not be left behind them. All the deer then went out to the valley. The young man kept among them; and as they were going through the bushes he heard the shouts of the Indians who were concealed behind them. The deer saw the snares and some of the animals fell into the nooses and were caught. The remainder, with the young man, were soon beyond the snares. The Indians began to kill the deer which had been taken in the nooses, and when they had finished they found they had not captured the young man. They consulted together and decided to search among the tracks of the escaped deer to ascertain whether his footprints were among them. They found his track and also the mark of his bow as he had dragged it along in the snow.

The young man's father then said, ^^Let him go if he thinks he is able to live with the deer;'' and the j)eop]e retomed to their tents.

The wolf^s daughter going to seek her lover, — ^An old mother wolf one morning said to her daughter, "You must go and look for your lover or else we shall all starve to death, as your brothers can not kill any deer." The daughter inquired of her mother, " Who is my lover t" The motherreplied, "The otter is your lover. He lives in the water. If you go to the narrows of the lake you will find him." The daughter said she would go. So early in the morning she started off, and as she was going along the shore of the lake she saw an open hole in the ice, and in the water the otter was sitting. The wolf went uj) to the otter, but the otter swam away and was going to dive, when the wolf said, "Do not dive and go away. My mother says you are my lover," The otter asked, " How can I be your lover when I live in the water f The wolf replied, "You can live on the land a« well as in the water." The otter answered back, " I will not live on the land." The wolf retorted, " You will have to live on the land, and if you do not come out I shall smother you in the water." The otter said, "You can not smother me, for I have a number of holes made in the lake ice." The otter dove into the water and disappeared. The wolf began to howl dismally when the otter vanished. The wind began to blow and drifted the snow furiously. The snow fell into the otter's breathing holes and filled them with slushy snow, which soon froze and completely stopped all the holes in the ice but one where the wolf was sitting. This hole was kept clear of snow and ice by the wolf scraping it out as fast as it collected. Soon she heard the otter going to the holes for breath, but when he came m^ar the hole where the wolf was sitting she could hear him snuffing for air, and she stood with open jaws ready to seize him when he should appear. The otter was nearly exhausted, so the wolf went off a little distance, and the otter came up to the surface of the water nearly out of breath. He crept out of the water and rolled himself in the dry snow to take the water off of his coat of fur and exclaimed to the wolf, " I will live with you; I will live with you." The wolf then addressed her lover and said, "Did I not tell you I would smother yout" The otter did not reply to this, but asked her, " Have you got a pie<*e of line t Give it to nie, and I will go to catch some fish for you if you will go and prepare a tent." The wolf drew out a piece of fishing line and handed it to the otter. The otter went down into the same hole in the ice whence he had come. He was gone some time, and in the meantime the wolf was busy making the tent, which was completed before the otter returned. Soon after, however, the otter came back to the hole with a long string of fish which he had killed and had them all strung on the line. He left the string of fish in the hole in the ice with one end of it fastened to the ice. The otter rolled himself in the snow t<) remove the wat^r fn)m his fur, an<l then went to the tent to tell his wife to go and get the fish which he had left in the hole in the ice.

The wolf went and hauled ap the line, which was fall of fish, and began to devour 8o many that soon she could scarcely move. She hauled the remainder of the fish home to the tent.

The otter was sleeping when she returned. She proceeded to clean the fish and put on a large kettle full of the fish to boil for supper. She then crept into bed with her husband, and the next morning she was delivered of a young otter and a young wolf. After the father and mother had taken their breakfast the latter sat with her head hanging down and seemed to be in a miserable mood. The otter inquired of the wife wolf, "What is the matter with you that you sit so quietly!^ The wolf answered : " I wish I had some deerskins with which to make clothing for the children. How nicely I should dress them ! ^ The otter replied: "Open the door and I will show you where I get the deer. ^ It was yet early, and the otter went away to seek the deer. The otter saw a band of thirty deer, but had no gun with which to kill them, so he frightened them, and as they were running away he sprang at them each, and jumped through them from end to end. He killed all of them in this manner and then rolled in the snow to cleanse himself. After that was done he wended his way home, and on arriving informed his wife (for it was then a little after sunset) that on the morrow she should go to bring home the deer he had killed, adding that she could follow his track, and thus find them. The wife had a big pot offish cooked for him when he returned, and when he had finished his supper he went to bed. As soon as the wife suspected her husband to be asleep she went after the deer, and by hauling four at a time she soon had them all brought, and laid them before the tent. When that was finished she went to bed. In the morniug the otter told her to get up and make a fire, as she would have to go for the carcasses of the deer which he had killed the day before. The wife replied: "I have already brought them all home." The otter asked her: " How could you bring them home in the dark!" The wife answered: " Look out through the door if you do not believe me. " The otter looked and saw the thirty deer all piled up before the door. He turned and looked at his wife, but made no remark. The wolf asked him : " WTiy do you look at me, so hardt'' The otter said: ''I was wondering how you could get them home in such a short time." The wolf said: "Come, and take your breakfast, for you will have to help me skin the deer." After they had finished eating their breakfast they began to skin the deer, and soon had them done. The wolf told her husband to make a stage or scaffold for the meat, adding that she would clean the skins. The otter prepared the stage, which in a short time was completed. The meat was placed on the stage and the skins hung up to dry around the tent. They then went in to take their supper. The wife was not in a talkative mood, and soon went to bed. The next morning the wolf hung her head down, and the otter seeing her again in such mood, inquired what was the matter with her that she should be so quiet.

deer. " So everything wspS got ready for an early start and they all retired to bed. When they awakened in the morning, one of the wife's brothers said to another : "Look at our otter brother; he has a white mouth." The otter turned to his wife and said to her : "Did I not tell you that your brothers would make a fool of me! " The otter then took his two otter children in his arms, and told his wife that she would have to make her living as best she could, as he would not live with her any more, that he was going away to leave her. He darted off to the lake, and disapx)eared under the ice, and was never seen again.

The devil punishing a liar, — ^A bear (mackwh) had two young cubs which she did not want to let know that summer had come, but kept them in the den and would not let them go out. The young ones continually inquired if the summer had come, and repeated the question every time the mother returned from the outside. She invariably answered, "No.*' Some days after she fell asleep, when she had returned from one of her trips, and while sleeping her mouth opened wide. The young ones said to each other: " Surely the summer is c^me, for there are green leaves in our mother's mouth." The mother had told her children how beautiful was the summer time, how green the trees, how juicy the plants, and how sweet the berries; so the cubs, impatient, while longing for summer that they might enjoy what was outside of their den, knew by the leaves in their mother's mouth that she had deceived them. The older cub told the younger that they would slip out at the top of the den and go out while their mother was yet sleeping. They crept out and found the weather so fine and the surroundings so pleasant that they wandered some distance off by the time she wakened from her sleep. She ran out and called loudly for her children, seemingly surprised, and exclaimed : " My sons, the summer has come; the summer has come." The cubs hid when they heard their mother's voice. She called to them until nightfall. The older cub said to his brother: "I wish the devil (A-qan') would hear her and kill her for telhng us the summer had not come, and keeping us in the house so long when it was already pleasant outside."

The mother bear soon screamed to her sons: "The devil has heard me and is killing me."

The cubs heard the devil killing their mother with a stone, lioundiug her on the head.

They becauie frightened and ran away.

A wolverene deMroyn hin sister. — A wolverene having wandered far, for several days without f‹M›d, suddenly (*.ame upon a bear. The former, feeling very hungry, conceived the plan of destroying his larger prey by stratagem. The wolverene cautiously approached the bear and exclaimed: "Is that you, sister!" The bear turned around and saw the wolverene, but in a low tone, which the wolverene did not hear, said to herself: "I did not know that I had a brother," so ran quickly away.

THC HUDSON BAY ESKIMO

The wolf replied: " I nui thinking of my poor bi-otliers; I suppose they will all be starved to t4>ld me to tell you to put li mark on the midd' wonkl kiio,w where I am. '' The otter went to tli erected a pile as a inai-k by which the wolTs i The brothers of the otter's wife were od the set up by their sister's husband, and wln' claimed: "Our Bister has saved usl oni and ran back to their old father's home i telli^euce that they had seen the mark pat sister. The old wolf then told his foraily t their sister and daughter to live with h all went to the hill by the lake, and ttii mark, and from it they followed tUe isaw the tent in the edge of the woods, our sist«r's tent, for the deerskins are hx snch a joyfhl shout at the prospect befi^ etied some young otters (for the fiunily wfre playing outride. The little one'- selves behind their father's back. Tl matter, that yon are so ftightened V are mnuing from the Hanger" (for t' the wolves). The mother replied : mother, and brothers coming." Th' Bee. She complied, and when she < ganut wolves; nothiug but akin m ately tell to, and began to devoni The otter's wife remonatrated, ain husband is not a Btiogy man. I and pretend not to eat l^iit anil the ottnr soon wviil asleep, they began to eat all ti it. Id the morning wbeii tU*- wife; "1 think yonr brotln asked : "What makes yuil look at mu su hard, that 1 ih breakfast thf oiler and \\i 'Jliey soon luuuf upon a l> (0 go ttiid kill ttivm. Til «.f tht'tn. After thi 5pni"g «l>*p the ilviT mwltiier He liad killfl lUff lUid returoiid <i tin- otlci', *t> when WAfOT'di'or did yon I; I IMUd| ^ addii

.y.'s very

• lu'tter tor ow itiy breath :.■•; the wolverirk her on the tuecD the eyes

.1 w;is wandering among

11 liun he ol>served a tent

.: iir >-repi up to the «de of

I ..tl'. aiiil ^w inside of it a fh>g

iiu iiodiinin-r sktrostrf the frog

■ ■• III.- frog rvpfied: I am play-

VI- "»ni- i>ff hunting and lam here

norjl'' f*r-" Tb« labbit wtjoined,

Mu : ■■ Tho tn>« *a»w««d. ■• I can «ot

r:d«lnt offer«l to *»nr the frog on

■: iuul giving hte a nwa thww him

,.hc »a,v l»iU «ny?«^" "Sotbey

niibu. wb«*. iMF«M anwing. the rabbit

FOLKLORE. 335

nf the tent while the former went oat to look !«' socking food the rabbit suddenly spied a \ illows which grew along the branch of 'id started to run homeward exclaim- .vcd knife and I must go quickly to rabbit says to hiniself, is sung as a ion of the rabbit's voice.) The rabbit ■ g into the tent, whereupon the frog ob- 1 inquired, ' Brother, what is the matter A' rabbit answered, '^Isaw a large smoke." I he frog. The rabbit replied, ** It is from the creek that runs near by." The frog »lish fear of the rabbit and answered him that • III the lodge of a family of beavers, and taunted 1 aid of such a timid creature as a beaver when Hiding that his own (frogs) brothers often carried houses to kill them when they were out of food; < IS could never kill any of them. pleased to hear the frog was such a great hunter, and carry the frog to the lodge of the beavers that some rocured. The frog accepted the offer and was carried to :ik. The rabbit then built a dam of stakes across the helow the lodges in order that the beavers should not X tVogthen dh'ected the rabbit to break into the top of the i hat the frog might get at the beavers to kill them. While 1 1 was breaking into the lodge of the beavers, the frog purloo.sened some of the stakes of the weir below in order to allow av ( rs to escape, hoping that the rabbit would become angry at tor so doing. When the rabbit saw what mischief the frog had !)<*, he took the frog and roughly shoved him under the ice into the .. iter. This did not harm the frog as it could live under water as well as on land, but the rabbit did not know that, so he believed he had drowned his brother the frog. The rabbit then returned to his home, regretting he had acted so harshly and began to cry for his brother, The frog in the meanwhile, killed all of the beavers and tied them together on a string, then slowly crawled to the rabbit's home with his burden on his back. The frog crept up to the tent but was afraid to enter so he began to play with the door flap of the tent to make a noise to attract the attention of the rabbit within. Finally he cried out to the rabbit, " Brother, give me a piece of fire for I am very cold. " The rabbit did not recognize the tired, weak voice of his brother frog, and, afraid lest it be some enemy endeavoring to entice him from his home, picked up a piece of dead coal which had no fire on it and flung it outside. The frog then said, " Brother, there is no fire on this piece and I can not cook my beavers with it." The rabbit then ran out quickly and tenderly carried the frog inside, and immediately the latter

r;

3df) THE HUDSON BAT ESKIMO.

h^t^n to miMKi and appear to flofTer »o mach that the rabbit inquired what wafi the matter and aeked if the beavers had bitten him. The fm^ .said, ^^ !7o, it waM yon who gave me snch a hard pnsh that yoa have hurt me in the nide.'^ The rabbit assored the frog that the injury waa TUiintentionally caoHed. The frog then directed the rabbit to prepare and cook the beavers. The rabbit went ont to fetch them bat he began to eat and did not stop until they were all devoured. After having tinished eating them the rabbit went for a walk. Ere long he noticed a huge smoke curling from the farther end of a valley and becoming greatly frightened he exclaimed, '^I have forgotten my crooked knife and L must go quickly to get it.^ He dashed into his door in a torrible state of mind. The frt)g coolly inquired, ^^ What is the matter that you are so scared ! ^ The rabbit sud, ^^ I have seen a great smoke at the fiEuther end of the valley through which the creek runs." The frog laughed loudly at his fear and said, ^^They are deer; my brothers often had me to kill them, as they could not kill any, when we had no meat.'' The rabbit was delisted at that so he offered to carry the frog toward the place. The frog directed the rabbit to make a snowshoe for the one foot of the frog. The rabbit soon had it made and gave it to his brother. The tn^ then said, ^* Carry me up towards the suioke."' The rabbit slung the frog on his back and away they went in the direction of the deer. The frt)g then told the rabbit to stand in one place and not to move while he (the frog) would work at the deer, and when be bad finished he would call him up to the place.

The frog killed all the deer in a very short time, skinned them, and stuck the head and neck of one of the deer into the snow so that it would be looking toward the place whence the rabbit would come. The frog then took the lungs of one of the deer and put it out to freeze. The cold turned the lungs white as tallow. The frog shouted for his brother rabbit to come quickly. When the rabbit came bounding near he saw the eyes of the deer's head staring at him in a queer manner; he was so much alarmed that he exclaimed to the frog, "Brother, hesees me.'' The frog smile«l and sjiid* ^I have killed him; he is dead; come on; I have a iiiiv piwe of fiit ^iu-^Hl t^^r jnou.^ (It was the frozen lungs of the dwr,^ i^«^ \y^^ li^.^^v th%^ r^bWr ^ l«irgv pie<.e and told him to eat it all and q^nol^^v. :^< •»* ^^':^* K^^tr^^r xt^w (Vi^Ren and fresh from the Am}v'» bjuk. T^^' >>'^'^'V i^^n^a^'^a <\v^^KN>MrHl hrgi portions and did not obsoi VI* f\s^ i^vi t V^ v^^ V^V ^ ^^»»v^ >r^v\ \s\iU a lodge or tent for the niifht ^^»^^^^^^ "^'^^ ^ ^'^ '^'^''^ ^^^' ^^^^ ^"^"^ ^s^A^ the frozen deer lungs whirh ll^ri^^^^^ '' '• ' ^ ^'»" »Mv^.Mi W V^-i^v^ «^Md it made the rabbit so vlolruti\ <^* ^^''* ^ ^ Mtii^a M»nUuu.UJ> k^ i^wiitK^ night. The frog hid vinr«^ ^^ ' '^*' *'" S i ■ » i'UuiuhiiH>>»v ft^^ (^^^yjug eaten all of the

..^^ ,. /'♦.., V \»u\vi\ai<,^ v^t^H out walking on the

I lllMhIr 1^^^ "" "'" ** ^^' ^* ^ l'^»s> Hiuiuttl inquired of the flii'k "^^^ '^' ^ ' ^^'* ^^*^' wii^Kuii; luMtiK^wr The rock replied,

"No, I can not move; henco I can not walk/' The wolverene retorted that he had seen it walking. The rock quickly informed the wolverene that he uttered a falsehood. The wolverene remarked, "You need not speak in that manner for I have seen you walking." The wolverene ran off a little distance and taunted the rock, challenging it to catch him. The wolverene then approached the rock and haWng struck it with his paw, said, "See if you can catch me." The rock answered, "I can not run but I can roll." The wolverene began to laugh and said, "That is what I want." The wolverene ran away and the rock rolledafter him, keeping just at his heels. The animal finally began to tire and commenced to jump over sticks and stones until at last the rock was touching his heels. At last the wolverene tripped over a stick and fell. The rock rolled over on him and ceased to move when it came upon the hind parts of the wolverene. The animal screamed, "Get off, go away, you are hurting me; you are breaking my bones." The rock remained motionless and replied, "You tormented me and had me run after you, so now I shall not stir until some one takes me off."

The wolverene replied, "I have many brothers and I shall call them." He called to the wolves and the foxes to come and remove the rock. These animals soon came up to where the rock was lying on the wolverene and they asked him, "How came you to get under the rock !" The wolverene replied, "I challenged the rock to catch me and it rolled on me." The wolves and foxes then told him that it served him right to be under the rock. They endeavored, after a time, to displace the rock but could not move it in the least. The wolverene then said, "Well, if you can not get me out I shall call my other brother, the lightning and thunder. " So he began to call for the lightning to come to his aid. In a few moments a huge dark cloud came rushing from the southwest, and as it hurried up it made so much noise that it frightened the wolves and foxes, but they asked the lightning to take off the coat of the wolverene but not to harm his flesh. They then ran away. The lightning darted back to gather forc^ and struck the rock, knocking it into small piec^es and also completely stripx)ed the skin from the back of the wolverene, tearing the skin into small pieces. The wolverene stood naked, but soon began to pick up the pieces of his coat and told the lightning, " You need not have torn my coat when you had only the rock to strike. "

The wolverene gathered up his pieces of coat and said he would go to his sister, the frog, to have her sew them together. He repaired to the swamp where his sister dwelt and asked her to sew them. She did so. The wolverene took it up and told her she had not put it together properly and struck her on the head and knocked her flying into the water. Ho took up the coat and went to his younger sister, the mouse. He directed her to sew his coat as it should be done. The mouse began to sew the pieces together and when it was done the wolverene carefully examined every seam and said, "You have sewed 11 BTH 22

it very well ; you will live in the tall green grass in the summer and in grass houses in the winter. ^ The wolverene put on his coat and went away.

Creation of people by the wolverene and the mtiskrat. — As a wolverene was wandering along the bank of a river he saw a muskrat swimming in the edge of the water. He accosted the latter animal with the inquiry', "Who are you? Are you a man or a woman f' The muskrat answered, "I am a woman." The wolverene informed her that he would take her for a wife. The muskrat replied, ^1 live in the water; how can I be your wifef The wolverene told her that she could live on the land as well as in the water. The muskrat went up on the bank to where the wolverene was staifiling. They selected a place and she began to prepare a home for them. They ate their suppers and retired. Soon after a child was born. The wolverene informed his wife that it would be a white man and father of all the white people. When this child was born it made a natural exit. In due time a second child was born which the wolverene decreed should be an Indian and the father of their kind. This child was bom from its mother's mouth. After a time a third child was bom, and the wolverene announced it to be an Eskimo and father of its kind. This child was born ah ano. In the natural course of events a fourth child was bom, and the wolverene decided it to be an Iroquois and father of its kind. This child was bom from its mother's nose. After a time a fifth child was bom and the wolverene decreed it should be a Negro and father of its kind. This child was born from its mother's ears. These children remained with their parents until they grew up. Their mother then called them together and announced to them that they must separate. She sent them to different places of the land, and, in parting, directed them to go to the white men whenever they were in need of anything, as the whites would have everything ready for them.

Origin of the whitish spot on the throat of the marten. — A man had a wife whom a marten fell in love with and endeavored to possess. Whenever the man would go away from his home the marten would enter, sit by the woman's side, and endeavor to entice her to leave her husband and go to live with him. One day the man returned unex> pectedly and caught the marten sitting by the side of his wife. The marten ran out. The man inquired of his wife what the marten wanted there. The woman replied that the marten was striving to induc^e her to desert him and become his own wife.

• The next time the man went off he told his wife to fill a kettle with water and put it on the fire to boil. The man went outside and secreted himself near the house. He soon saw the marten go into the house.

The man stole quietly to the door of the house and listened to the marten, which was talking to his wife. The man sprang into the house and said: "Marten, what are you doing here, what are you trying to

TURNKR.J FOLKLORE. 339

do?^' The man seized the kettle of hot water and dashed it on the breast of the animal. The marten began to scratch his burning bosom and ran out into the woods; and because he was so severely hurt he now keeps in the densest forests, away from the sight of man.

The Indian and his heaver wife. — One day an Indian was hunting along the bank of a stream and in the distance saw a beaver's house. In a moment he perceived a beaver swimming toward him. He drew up and was on the point of shooting it when the animal exclaimed, "Do not shoot, I have something to say to you.'' The Indian inquired, "What is it you have to say!" The beaver asked him, "Would you have me for a wife?" The Indian replied, "I can not live in the water with you." The beaver answered, "You will not know you are living in the water, if you will follow me." The Indian fiirther remarked that he could not live on willows and other woods like a beaver. The beaver assured him that when eating them he would not think them to be willows. She added, " I have a nice house to live in." The man replied, "My brother will be looking for me if I come in and he will not know where 1 am. The beaver dirtJcted the man to take off his clothing and leave them on the bank and to follow her. The Indian did as he was instructed. As he was wading through the water he did not feel the water touching him; so they presently began to swim and soon reached the home of the beaver. The beaver told him as she i)ointed ahead, "There is my home, and you will find it as good and comfortable as your own tent. " They both enterecl and she soon set before him some food which he did not recognize as willow bark. After they had slept two nights his brother became alarmed and went to search for him, and soon found his track. In following it up his brother came to where he had left his clothing on the bank of the stream.

The brother was distressed at finding such things, so went sorrowfully back to the tent thinking that his brother had been drowned, and so told the other Indians when he arrived. With a heavy heart he went to bed and in the morning he awakened and told his wife that he had dreamed his brother was living with a beaver. He told his wife to make some new clothing for the lost brother as he wouhl go and seek the haunts of the beavers to discover his brother. The man occupied himself in making a pair of snowshoes, while the wife prepared the clothing. The next day she had the clothing done and he directed her to make them into a small bundle as he would start on the search early the next morning. Other young men desired to accompany him on the search, but were advised to remain at home as their presence would prevent him from reaching the beaver's retreat. Early in the morning he started off, taking the clothes and snowshoes vnt\ him. After some time he found the place where the beaver had her house and in which he suspected his brother to be living. He went to work to make a dam across the stream so as to decrease the depth of water around the beaver's house. The wife had borne two children to the

husband by this time, and when the father had seen the water going firom their house he told the children: " Your uncle is coming and he is certain to kill you." The water had soon gone down sufficiently to enable the man to cross the stream to where the house was situated.

On arriving there he began pounding at the mud walls. The father told the children to go out or else the house would fall on them. The man outside quickly killed the two young ones. The wife knew she would soon be killed also, and after they had heard the deathblows given to their children she said to her husband, " If you are sorry that I am killed and ever want to see me again, keep the right hand and arm of my body; take off the skin and keep it about you." In a few minutes the brother had begun again to tear out the sides of the lodge. The husband told her to go out, and that his love for her would make him keep her right hand. She then went out and was quickly killed with a stick. When this was done and the husband had heard it all he was very sorry for his wife. Again the man began to destroy the rest of the house and soon had a large hole in the wall of one side. The husband then said to him, '^ What are you doing? You are making me very cold." The brother replied, "I have brought some warm clothing for you and you will not feel cold." ' Throw them in," said the husband, "for I am freezing." He put on the clothes, and while he was doing it the brother noticed the hairs which had grown on the other's back, but said nothing about it. The husband then sat in his house until the other was near freezing to death. The brother then said to him, ' Gome with me ; you can not stay here." The husband demanded, as a condition of returning, that the brother should never say anything to him to make him angry if he went back. Tlie brother promised him not to do so. They then Started to return, the brother taking the bodies of the children and mother on his back, the husband walking ahead. They soon arrived at the home of their people. The brother threw down the beavers and direc^ted his wife to skin them. The husband of the beaver asked for the right hand and arm of the beaver who had been his wife. It was given to him. He got one of the other women to skin it, and told her to diy the skin and return it to him. Three nights after their return to their people a great many beavers were killed and a large kettle full of flesh was boiled for food. Tho people pressed the runaway brother to eat of the flesh of the beavers. He informed them that if it was the flesh of a female beaver he would not eat it. They told him that the flesh of the male beavers was all finished long ago. They forced him to eat a large piece of meat, and when he had swallowed it they gave him more of it. The second x>iece was no sooner down his throat than a large river gushed from his side. The Indian jumped into the river, while the rest ran away in terror and, as these latter looked down thetiver, they saw the man swimming by the side of his wife who had been a beaver.

The venturesome hare. — A harCi which had lost his parents, lived

TURNBB.1 FOLKLORE. 341

with his grandmother. One day, feeling very hungry, for they were extremely poor, he asked his grandmother if he could set a net to catch fish. The old woman laughed at the idea of a hare catching fish, but to humor him, she consented, for she was indulgent to him because he was her only charge and looked forward to the time when he should be able to support her by his own exertions, and not to rely on the scanty supplies which she was able to obtain. These were very meager, as she was infirm, and dreaded exposuie. She then told him to go and set the net, but added that she had no fire to cook them with, even if he should catch any. The hare promised to procure fire if he caught the fish. He went to set the net in a lake where he knew fish to be plentiful. The next morning he went to the net and found it to be so full offish that he was unable to take it up. Ue lifted one end and saw there was a fish in every mesh of the net. He shook out some of the fish and then drew out the net. Part of the fish were buried, and a large load taken home. He put the fish down outside of the tent, and went in. He told the old woman to clean the fish and that he would go across the river to the Indians' tent and get the fire with which to cook them. The old woman was speechless at such proi)osed rashness, but as he had been able to catch so many fish she refrained remarking on his contemplat<ed project of obtaining fire in the fac^ of such danger. While the old woman was cleaning the fish he went back after the net which he had put out to dry on the shore of the lake.

He folded it up, placed it under his arm, and ran to the edge of the river which was far too wide to jump over. He used his cunning and assembled a number of whales. These animals came puffing up the stream in obedience to his command. He ordered them to arrange themselves side by side across the stream so that he could walk across on their backs. He most dreaded the Indians, but jumped into the water to wet his fur. This being done he sprang from one whale to another until he was safe on the opposite shore. He then laid down in the sand and bade the whales to disperse. Some Indian children soon came playing along the sandy bank and saw the hare lying there. One of the children picked up the hare and started home with it. When the boy arrived and told how he had obtained the hare he was directed to put it in the iron tent (kettle) where there was a bright fire crackling.

The child put down the hare, upon which an old man told the boy to kill the hare. The hare was terribly frightened, but opened a part of one eye to ascertain whether there was any place of exit beside the door. In the top of the tent he observed a large round hole. He then said to himself: "I wish a spark of fire would fall on my net." Instantly the brands rolled and a great spark fell on the net and began to burn it. The hare was afraid of the fire, so he sprang out of the hole in the apex of the tent. The Indians saw they had been outwitted by a hare.

liQHband by thia time, and whea the father had seen the water going &oiti their houHe be told the children : "Your uncle is coming and he \b certain to kill you." The water bad soon gone down tinfflciently to ennble the man to cross the stream to where the house was situated. Un arriving there he began ponoding at the mud walls. The father told the children to go out or else the house woiild fall on them. The man outside quickly killed the two young ones. The wife knew she would soon be kille^l also, and after they had heard the deathblows given to their children she said to her husband, " If yon are sorry that I am killed and ever want to see me again, keep the right hand and arm of my body; take off the skin and keep it about you." In a few minutes the brother had begun again to tear out the sides of the lodge. The husband told her to go out, and that his love for her would make him keep her right hand. She then wont out and was quickly killed with a stick. When this was done and the husband had heard it all he was very sorry for his wife. Again the man began to destroy the rest of the house and soon had a large hole iu the wall of one side. The husband then said tohira, "What are you doingt You are making me very cold." The brother replied, " I have brought sonic warm clothing for you and you will not feel cold." "Throw them in," said the husband, "for I am freezing." He put on the clothes, and while he was doing it the brother noticed the hairs which had grown on the other's back, but said nothing about it. The husband then sat in his house until the other was near freezing to death. The brother then said to him, "Come with me; you can not stay here." The husband demanded, as a condition of returning, that the brother should never say anything to him to make him angry if he went back. Tlie brother promised him not to do so. They then Started to return, the brother taking the bodies of the children and mother on his back, the hnsband walking ahead. They soon arrived at the home of their people. The brother threw down the iR'avers and directed his wife to skin them. The hasband of the beaver asked for the right hand nud arm of the beaver who bad been his wife. It was given to him. He got one of the other women to skin it, and told her to dry the skin and return it to him. Three nights after their return to their people a great many beavers were killed and u large kettle full of de»h was boiled for food. The people pressed the runaway brother to eat of the flesh of the beavers. He informed them that if it was the flesh of a female beaver he would not eat it. They told him that the flesh of the male beavers w;vs all finishe<l long ago. They forced him to eat a large piece of meat, and when he had swallowed it they gave htm mure of it. The second niece was no sooner down his throat than a large river gushed fi-om his side. The Inilian jumped into the river, while the rest ran awaj in terror and. AS these latter looke^l down the river, they saw the man swimming by the side of his wife who hatt been a beaver.

The mtt¥rr»>me kare. — A hare^ which bad lost his parents. Uved \

TUMftB-J FOLKLORE. 343

sitting near the fire. The mother in astonishment said, ^^ Husband, is this not our little boy whom we deserted at our late camp!" The husband asked the boy, "Who brought you here?'' The little boy answered, "My grandfather.'' The mother inquired, "Who is your grand- father?" The father asked, "Where is he now?" The boy replied, "He is sitting outside." The father asked his wife to look outside and see if any one was there. The woman did so and informed him that "I see some one sitting there, but I do not know who it is." The spirit replied, " You should call me somebody when you are no one to leave your child to perish." The husband directed his wife to in\ite the old man into the tent.

The spirit declined to enter. The father then asked the son to tell him to come in. The boy went out and conducted the old man within the tent. The latter seated himself across the fire (this is intended to mean opposite the door but on the other side of the fire). They slept in the tent that night, and when the little boy awakened he found all the people preparing to snare deer. The people asked the little boy to accompany them. He did so, and when he was ready to start he asked the old man what part of the deer he should bring home for him. The old man replied that he would enjoy the lungs better than any other part. The boy promised to bring a quantity for him on his return in the. evening. Toward evening the boy returned loaded with choice bits for the old man who had conducted him to his father and mother. While outside of the tent he called to the old man, saying that he had brought home some food for him. Hearing no reply he entered the tent, and not seeing the man he inquired of his mother where the person was. The mother announced that he had departed, but did not know where he had gone. It was late, but the boy resolved to rise early and follow his track. He was up at daybreak, and finding the track followed it until he observed the spirit crossing a large lake which was frozen over. The boy cried out to the old man to wait for him. The spirit awaited his approach. The boy said to him, " Why did you go away when I had promised you some choice food?" The spirit replied that it could not dwell among living people, as it was only a spirit and that it was returning to its abode. The old man advised the boy to return to his people. Tlie boy did so, but the next morning the desire to see the good old man seized the boy, and again he started to find him. The other people then tied the boy to a tree and he soon forgot his benefactor.

Faf^ of two Indian men. — Two Indian men who had gone off for the fall and winter's hunt were living by themselves. They were very unsuccessful in procuring fiirs and food, so that when the depths of win- ter had approached and the cold was intense they resolved to seek the camp of their friends. They were provided with nothing but bows and arrows. The next morning they started off and tramped all day without seeing a living thing. They made their camp and lamented

they had no food. They finally prepared to sleep, when one of them remarked to the other, "To-night I shall dream of iiorcupines." They slept, and in the morning the one related that he had seen a lot of porcupines around the tent while he was dreaming. They determined to proceed, but the one finally thought if they would stop there for the day and succeeding night they would have all the i)orcupine meat they would want. They remained there that day, and in the middle of the night they were aroused by a noise which proved to be i)orcupines gnawing the bark from the tent poles. The one man said, "Slip out and kill some with a stick;'' but added, "Go out in your bare feet." He went out barefooted and killed two or three, and dashed back into the tent with his feet nearly frozen. He stuck his feet into the hot ashes and told the other man to bring in the animals. The other man did so, and began to prepare the flesh for cooking. They ate one of the porcupines, and by daylight were ready to begin their journey. They went idly along, shooting their arrows in sport at anything they could see. They continued this amusement until near sunset, when one exclaimed, "My arrow has struck something; see, it is moving.'' The other replied, " What can it be, when it is sticking only in the snow!" The other said he would try and find out what it was. He cautiously examined, and found when he began to dig it out that the arrow had entered the deii of a bear. So they scratched away the snow and soon saw a long, black hair sticking out of tiie hole. He jumped back and exclaimed, "It is some sort of animal with black hair." The other replied, "Let us try and get it out. It may be good to eat." They finally drove the bear out and soon killed it. They began to skin it, which was soon done. One of the men then said, "It is too big and ugly to eat; let us leave it." The other, however, cut off a large piece of fat and put it on the sled. They then prepared their camp, and when morning came they started off and traveled all day. When night came they made their camp and soon had a huge fire burning. One of the men hung the piece of fat over the fire and the oil soon dripped into the fire. It created such a nice smell that one of them said, "Let us taste the fat; it may be good to eat." They tasted it and found it so good that they rated each other soundly for being so foolish as to leave such nice flesh so fiir behind them. They resolved to return for it. So they returned for the carcass of the bear, which was far behind them, and as it had tasted so good they determined to lose no time in starting. They went immediately, although it was now dark and very cold. They came to the place where it had been left and discovered that the wolves and foxes had eaten all the meat, leaving nothing but the bones. They were very angry, and began to lay the blame each on the other for having left it. They re- gretted they had left such meat for wolves and foxes. They determined to proceed to where they had camped the third time. On the way they became very thirsty, and, stopping at a creek to drink,

TUBNEB.) FOLKLORE. 345

they drank so long that their lips froze to the ice of the water hole, and they miserably perished by freezing.

The atarving tcolverene. — On the approach of winter a wolverene, whi(;h had been so idle daring the summer that he had failed to store up a supply of provisions for himself, his wife, and children, began to feel the pangs of hanger. The cold days and snowstorms were now at hand. The father one day told his wife that he would go and try to discover the place where his brothers, the wolves, were passing the winter and from them he would endeavor to procure some food. The wife desired him not to remain away long, else the children would starve to death. He assured her that he would be gone no longer than four days, and made preparations to start early on the succeeding morning. In the morning he started and continued his journey until near nightfall, when he came to the bank of a river. On looking at the ice which covered its surfaoe he descried a pack of wolves ascending the river at a rapid rate. Behind these were four others, which were running at a leisurely gait. He soon overtook the latter group, and was perceived by one of these old wolves, which remarked to the others, "There is our brother, the wolverene, coming." The animal soon joined the wolves and told them that he was starving, and asked for food. The wolves replied that they had none, but that the wolves in sidvance were on the track of some deer and would soon have some. The wolverene inquired where they would camp for the night. They told him to continue with them on the track of the others until they came to a mark on the river bank. The wolves, accompanied by the wolverene, continued their way until one of the old wolves called attention to the sign on the bank and proposed they should go up to it and await the return of the others. They went up and began to gather green twigs to make a clean floor in the bottom of the t«nt. This was no sooner done than the young wolves (the hunters) returned and began to put up the tent poles. The old wolves said they themselves would soon have the tent covering in place. The wolverene was astonished at what he saw and wondered whence they would procure the tenting and tire. The old wolves laughed as they observed his curiosity, and one of them remarked, "Our brother wonders where you will get the tent cover from." The wolverene replied, " I did not say that; I only said my brothers will soon have up a nice and comfortable tent for me." The wolves then sent him oft' to collect some dry brush with which to make a fire. When he returned the tent was already on the poles. He stood outside holding the brush in his arms. One of the wolves told him to bring the wood inside the tent. He entered and gave the brush to one of the young wolves (the leader of the hunters). The leader placed the brush in position to create a good fire, and while that was being done the wolverene wondered how they would start the fire. One of the old wolves remarked, "Our brother wonders where and how you will get the fire." He made no reply, as one of the young wolves (the leader) took up akettle

and went outside to get some snow to melt for water, and returned with it full of snow. He set the kettle down and sprang quickly over the pile of brush and it started into a blaze in an instant. It was now an opportunity for the wolverene to wonder wbonce should come the supply of meat to boil. One of the old wolves said, " Our brother wonders where you will got some meat to cook for supper." One of the young wolves went out and brought in a brisket of deer's meat. As soon as the wolverene saw the meat he asserted that he did not wonder about the source of the supply of meat, but that he only wished there was some meat ready for cooking. The meat was cut up and placed in the kettle and when it was ready it was served out. The choicest i)ortions were selected for the wolverene and placed before him with the injunction to eat all of it. He endeavored to consume it, but the quantity was too great even for him. He, having finished his meal, was about to place the remainder on one of the poles when a wolf, observing his action, told him not to place it there or else the meat would change into bark. He then laid it down on a piece of clean brushwood and when he suspected the eyes of the wolves were not turned toward him he stealthily inserted the portion of meat between the tenting and the pole. The wolves saw his action apd in a few minutes the wolverene became very sleepy und soon retired. One of the wolves carefully displaced the meat from the pole, where the wolverene had put it, and thrust in its st«ad a piece of bark. In the morning when the wolverene awakened his first thought was of the remnant of food. He reached up for it and found nothing but the piece of bark. The wolves were on the alert and one of them said, *'Did I not tell you it would change into bark if you put the meat in that place!" The wolverene hung his head and answered, "Yes," and again laid down to sleep. By the time he awakened the wolves had a second kettle of meat cooked. They desired the wolverene to arise and eat his bre<akfast. The leader told him to hasten with his meal, as he had discovered some fresh deer tracks. The wolverene thought he would watch how they broke camp and see where they put the tentings. He went off a few st^ps and while his back was turned the tent disappeared and he failed to discover where it was secreted. The fhuimals then started off, the young ones taking the lead while the four old ones and the wolverene followed leisurely behind. After they had crossed the river the wolverene began to wonder where they would halt for the night. One of the old wolves told him they must follow the track of the leader and they would come to the sign made for the site of the camp. They continued for the entire day, but just before sundown they came across the bones of a freshly killed deer from which every vestige of meat had been removed, apparently eaten by wolves; so the wolverene thought he would stand a poor chance of getting a supper if that was the way they were going to act. The party continued on the track and soon came upon the mark for the tent site.

The wolverene was glad to rest, but sat down and began to look ahead in the distance for the retaming hunters. After a few minutes be looked around and saw the tent standing there. The wolves then sent the wolverene for dry brush, while they gathered green branches for the tent floor. lie brought so small a quantity that it would not suflftce. The young wolves returned at the same time and they directed him to again procure some brush. When he returned he found they had stripped all the fat off of the deer meat, although, he had not seen them bring any when they returned, and placed it around the inside edges of the tent. The brush was put down and again the leader jumped over it and a bright, crackling fire started up. The wolves then said to themselves in a low tone of voice: "Let us go outside and see what our brother will do when he is left alone with the fat." They went outside and immediately the wolverene selected the nicest and largest piece of fat and begkn to swallow it* The wolves at the same moment inquired of him: "Brother, are there any holes in the tent cover!" His mouth was so full, in his haste to swallow the fat, that it nearly choked him. They repeated their inquiry and the wolverene gasped out the answer, "yes." The wolves then said: "Let us go inside." The wolverene sprang away from the fat and sat down by the fire. They put on a large kettle of meat and soon IumI their supper ready. They gave the wolverene all the fattest portions they could find. Having eaten so much of the frozen fat he became so violently ill, when the hot food melted the cold fat in his stomach, that he vomited a long time, and was so weak that he became chilly and shivered so much that he could not sleep. He asked for a blanket, but one of the wolves placed his own bushy tail on the body of the wolverene to keep him warm. The wolverene shook it off and exclaimed: "I do not want your foul-smelling tail for a blanket" So the wolf gave him a nice and soft skin blanket to sleep under. When ho awakened he announced his intention to return to his family, as they would soon be dead from hunger. One of the old wolves directed the younger ones to make up a sledload of meat for the wolverene to take home with him. The wolf did so, but made the load so large and long that the wolverene could not see the rear end of the sled. When it was ready they told him of it, and, as he was about to start, he requested they would give him some fire, as he could not make any without. The leader asked how many nights he would be on the journey homeward. He answered, three nights. The wolf told him to lie down in the snow. He did so and the wolf jumped over his body three times, but strictly enjoined upon him not to look back at the sled as he was going along. The wolverene promised he would comply with his instructions. After the animal had started and got some little distance from the camp of the wolves he thought of the peculiarly strange things he had witnessed while among those animals; and, to test himself, be concluded to try the method of making a fire. He stopped, gathered

348 THE HUD80N BAY ESKIMO.

a quantity of dry J3rash and placed it as he had seen the wolves arrange it. He then sprang over it and a huge blaze gave evidence of the power within him. He was so astonished that he resolved to camp there. He melted some snow and drank the water and retired to rest, without having looked at the sled. The next morning he started early and made his camp before sunset, as he was very tired. He gathered some brush and made the fire by jumping over the pile of fuel. His supper was only some melted snow which he drank and retired. In the morning he started to continue his journey homeward and still had not seen the sled which he was dragging. As he was ready to start he was so confident of his ability to create fire that he threw away his flint and steel. He traveled all day until toward sunset he was so fatigued that he concluded to make his camp for the night. He was so elated with his newly acquired faculty of making fire that he eagerly gathered a great quantity of dried twigs and branches, until a large heap was before him. He jumped over it, and turned round to see the flames creep up and watch the sparks fly. There was not a sign of a blaze or a spark to meet his gaze. He again jumped over it, and again, until he was so exhausted that he could not clear the top of the pile, and at last he knocked the top of it over, as his failing strength did not enable him to avoid it. The only thing left for him to do was to return for his flint and steel, which he had so exultingly thrown aside. The animal berated himself soundly for having done such a silly trick. Not having seen the sled he was surprised to find how quickly he regained the site of the camp of the previous night. Having recovered his flint and steel he returned, and soon had a fire started ; but it was now near daylight. He resolved to start on his journey as soon as he had some water melted for a drink. He began to think how quickly he had made the trip for his flint and steely and concluded that the great length of the sled had been purposely made to cause him unnecessary fatigue, as it could not be so very heavy, or else that he must be extraordinarily strong. Qe determined to examine it, and did so. He could not see the farther end of the load. He flattered himself that he was so very strong, and concluded to continue his journey. He attempted to start the sled, and found he could not move it in the least. He upbraided himself for permitting his curiosity to get the better of his sense. He removed a portion of dry meat and a bundle of fat, and made them into a load to carry on his back. He placed the remainder on a stage, and was about ready to start homeward to his wife and children, whom he believed must be by this time nearly dead from starvation.

He put the pack of meat on his back and set out. That evening he arrived at his home, and as soon as his wife heard him her heart was glad. He entered and informed the family that he had brought home a quantity of meat and fat, and had procured so much as to be unable to carry it all at once. His wife begged him to fetch her a piece of

meat, as she was nearly starved. He went out and brought in a large piece of fat. The wife devoured such a quantity of it that she became very ill, and suffered all through the night. In the morning the wolverene stated he would return for the meat which he had stored away the previous day. He started in the early morning, so as to return by daylight.

As soon as the wolverene looked upon the sled lo^ided with meat the spell was broken. One of the old wolves ordered the young wolves to go and destroy the meat and fat which the wolverene had left on the stage. They eagerly set out on the track of the sled, and soon saw the staging where the wolverene had stored the remainder of the food. When they came up to it they fell to and devoured all but a few scraps of it. The wolves then went away, and in a few hours the wolverene returned. He saw what had hapx>ened and exclaimed : ^^ My brothers have ruined me ! My brothers have ruined me ! " He knew it had been done because he had looked back at the sled, although strictly enjoined upon not to do so under any circumstance. He gathered up the fragments which the wolves had left and returned home. When he arrived there he informed his wife that his brothers had ruined him, because they had eaten all the meat which he had stored away while out hunting.

The starving Indians, — ^A band of Indians, who had neglected to store away a supply of food for a time of scarcity, were upon the i)oiut of starvation. An old man who lived at a little distance from the camping place of the band, had wisdom to lay by a good store of dry meat and a number of cakes of fat, so that he had an abundance while the other improvident people were nearly famished. They applied to him, begging for food, but they were refused the least morsel. One day, however, an old man came to.him asking for.food for his children. The man gave him a small piece of meat. When the man's children ate this food they began to cry for more. The mother told her little boy to stop crying. He persisted in his clamor until his mother asked him : "Why do you not go to the old U' sets kwa n? po!" (the name means One whose neck wrinkles into folds when he sits down). This old man heard the mother tell her child to go to him, and muttered to himself, "That is just what I want."

The little boy went to the old man's tent door, and lifting aside the flap, said : " I want to come in." He went in and the old man addressed the boy by his own name, saying : " What do you want, U' sets kwa n6 po !" in such a kindly voice that the boy ^It assured. The boy said: "I am very hungry and want some food." The old man inquired in an ast<mished voice: "Hungry! and your meat falling down from the stage !" The old man bade the boy sit down, while he went out to the stage and selected some choice portions and brought them into the tent and gave them to the boy. The old man then asked the boy if he had a sister. The boy said that he had a father, mother, and one sister.

350 THE HUDSON HAY ESKIMO.

After the boy had finished eating, the okl man directe<l the boy to come with him and see the meat stages. They went out and the old man said: "Now, go home and tell your father that all of this food will belong to you if he will give me his daughter.^ The little boy went home and repeated what the old man had said. The father signified his willingness to give his daughter in marriage to the old man. The boy returned to the old man and stated that his father was willing to give away his daughter. The old man immediately went out, took some meat and fat from the stage, and then (;ooked three large kettles of food. When this was done he selected a suit of clothing for a man and two suits for women. He placed the nicer one of the latter near his own seat, and the other two suits directly on the opposite side of the fireplace (the place of honor in the tent). He then told the little boy to call all the Indians, adding: "There is your father's coat, your mother's dress, and your sister's dress. Tell your parents to sit where they see the clothing," pointing to the clothes intended for them, and the sister to sit near the old man, pointing to his own place. The boy ran out and apprised the people, together with his own relations. The l)oy returned to the old man's tent before the guests arrived. The boy's &ther came first, and the hoy said : " Father, there is yoiu* coat." The mother then entered, and the boy said : " Mother, there is your dress." The sister then entered, and the boy pointed to the dress, sajring: " Sister, there is your dress." All the other Indians then came in and seated ' themselves. They took two kettles of meat and broke the fat into pieces and feasted until all was consumed. The old man helped his wife, her father, mother, and brother to the contents of the other kettle. When all the food was finished the old man said to the boy, "U' s6ts kwa n6 po; go and set your deer snares." The old man went with him to find a suitable place. They could find only the tracks of deer made several days previously. They, however, set thirty snares and returned home. The next morning they all went to the snares and found a deer in each one. The people began to skin the deer and soon had a lot of meat ready for cooking. They began to feast, and continued until all was done. By this time a season of abundance had arrived.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION— BUKEAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

A STUDY OF SIOTJAN CULTS.

BY

JAMES OWEN DORSEY.

I « •

•^r

.'. 1 1

• 1 '

CONTENTS.

Chapter I.— Introduction 361

Definitionsof "Cnlt"an(l"Siouau^ 361

Siouan Family 361

Authorities 361

Alphabet 363

Abbreviations 364

Chapter II.— Definitions 365

Alleged belief in a Great Spirit 365

Phenomena divided into human and superhuman 365

Terms for "mysterions," ** lightning," etc 366

Other Omaha and Ponka terms 367

y Significance of personal names and kinship terms 368

Myth and legend distinguished from the superhuman 368

Chaptkr III.— Cults of the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, and Osage 371

Beliefs and practices not found 371

Omaha, Ponku, and Kansa l>elief in a wakanda 372

*/ Seven great wakaudas 372

Invocation of warmth and streams 372

Prayer to wakanda 373

Accessories of jirayer 373

Omaha and Kansa expressions about wakanda 374

Ponka belief about malevolent spirits i 374

An old Omaha custom 375

The sun a wakanda 376

Invocations 376

The oflfering of tobacco ? 377

The Ponka sun dance of 1873 378

The moon a wakanda 378

Ber<laches 378

Stars as wakandas 379

The winds as wakandas 380

Invocation 380

Kansa sacrifice t<> the winds 380

Osage consecration of mystic fireplaces 380

The thunder-being a wakanda 381

Omaha and Ponka invocation of the thunder-being 381

Thunder-bemg invoked by warriors 382

Ictasanda custom 383

K.'insa worship of the thunder-being 385

Snbt<MT:nie;ni and Bubaquatic wakandas 386

The ind.Miiifiga 386

11 ETH 23 ^^

354 . COIITENTS.

Chapter III — Continned. Pa^.

Other Kansa wakandas 387

Omaha invocations of the trap, etc 387

Fasting 390

Mystic trees and plants 390

Ifa'ef» 392

Personal mystery decorations 394

Order of thunder shamans 395

Generic forms of decoration 397

Specific forms of decoration 398

Comandthebnfifalo 403

Other Omaha mystery decorations 403

Kansa mystery decorations 405

Omaha nikle decorations 407

Omaha nikie customs 410

Governmental instrumentalities 411

Omaha and Ponka taboos 411

f Fetichism 412

Fetiches of the tribe and gens 413

Omaha tribal fetiches 413

Osage tribal fetiches 414

Kansa tribal fetiches 415

Personal fetiches 415

Sorcery 415

Jugglery 417

Omaha and Ponka belief as to a future life 419

Kansa beliefs respecting death and a future life 421

Chapter IV. — x^iwere and Winnebago cults 423

Authorities 423

Term '^ Great Spirit '' never heard among the Iowa 423

The sun a wakanta 423

The winds as wakantas 423

The thunder-being a wakanta 424

Subterranean powers '. 424

Subaquatic powers 424

Animals as wakantas 425

Apotheoses 425

Dwellings of gods 425

Worship 426

Taboos 426

i/ Public or tribal fetiches 427

Symbolic earth formations of the Winnebago 427

^ Personal fetiches 428

^ Dancing societies 428

The-Otter dancing society 42^

The Red Medicine dancing society 429

The Green Com dance 429

The Buffalo dancing society 429

jLci were traditions 430

Belief in a future life 430

CiiAPTER v.— Dakota and Assiniboin cults 431

Alleged Dakota belief in a Great Spirit 431

Riggson theTaku wakan 432

Meaning of wakan 433

Daimonism 43S

CONTENTS, 355

Chapter V — Continued. Page.

AnimiBm 433

^/Principal Dakota gods 434

Miss Fletcher on Indian religion 434

Prayer 435

Sacrifice 435

Use of paint in worship 438

The nnktehiy or subaquatic and subterranean powers 438

Character of the unkteM 438

Power of the unktehi 439

Subordinates of the unktehi 439

The mystery dance 440

The miniwatu 440

•^ The Waki^ya", or thunder-beings 441

The armor gods 443

The war prophet 444

The spirits of the mystery sacks 445

Taku8kai)8kai), the Moving deity 445

Tunkan or Inyan, the Stone god or Lingam 447

Ii)yaT) Ha 448

Mato tipi 448

The sun and moon 449

Nature of concepts 449

The sun dance 450

K^A Dakota*8 account of the sun dance 450

Object of the sun dance 451

Rules observed by householdB 451

The '*u-ma-ne" 451

Rules observed bv the devotee 452

Tribes invited to the sun dance 452

Discipline maintained 452

Camping circle formed 453

Men selected to seek the mystery tree 453

Tent of preparation 454

Expedition to the mystery tree 455

Felling the tree 456

Tree taken to camp 457

Raising the sun pole 457

Building of dancing lodge 458

TheUucita 458

Decoration of candidates or devotees 458

Offerings of candidates ! 459

Ceremonies at the dancing lodge ? 460

The dance 460

Candidates scarified 460

Pieces of flesh offered 462

Torture of owner of horse 462

End of the. dance 462

IntruHive dances 463

Captain Bourke on the sun dance 464

Berdaches 467

Astronomical lore 467

Day and niglit 467

The dawn 468

Weather Hpirit 468

356 CONTENTS.

Chapter V — Continued. Page.

Heyoka 468

The concepts of Heyoka 468

Heyoka feast 469

Story of a Heyoka man 469

Heyoka women 471

lya, the god of gluttony 471

Ikto, Iktomi, or Unktomi 471

daqotidaij and HoFino^i^^a 473

Aniii)g-it« 473

Penates 475

Gnardinu spirits 475

Beliefs about the buffalo 475

Prevalence of the beliefs 475

Origin of the buffalo 476

The Tatai)^askii)yai); or Mythic buffalo 477

The bear 477

Tho wolf 477

Horses 479

Spiders 479

Snake lore 479

Tlie double woman 480

Deer women 480

Dwarfs or elves 481

Bogs 481

Trees 482

Customs relating to childhood 482

Puberty 483

/Ghost lore and tlie future life 484

Meaning of wanagi 484

Assiuiboin beliefs about the dead 485

Ghosts not always visible 485

Death and burial lore '185

Wliy the Teton stopped burying in the ground 486

Importance of tattooing^ 486

Ceremonies at the ghost lodge 487

Good and bad ghosts 489

Intercourse with ghosts 489

Ghost stories 489

The ghost husband 48J>

The S(ditary traveler 489

The ghost on the hill 489

The Indian who wrestled with a ghost 489

The man who shot a ghost 492

Assiuiboin beliefs about ghosts 492

Prayers to the dead, including ancestors 493

Metamorphoses and transmigration of souls 493

Exhortations to absent warriors 493

Mysterious men and women 493

Go])her lore 496

Causes of boils and sores 496

v/Resnlts of lying, stealing, etc 497

llSecret societies 497

Fetidiism , 498

Public or tribal fetiches 498

Private or personal fetiches 498

);

CONTENTS. 357

Chapter V — Continued. Page.

Ordeals, or modes of swearing 499

/Sorcery and jugglery 499

•^ Omens 500

Bodily omens 500

Animal omens 500

Omens from dreams 600

Chapter VI. — Cults of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sapona 501

Authorities 501

Alleged belief in a Great Spirit 501

The great mystery a modem deity 501

Polytheism 502

Worship 502

Faflting 502

Sacrilice 502

The Okipa 502

TheDahpike 503

Cult of the Yoni 606

Absaroka fear of a white buffalo cow 505

Mandan cults 506

Mandan divinities 506

Guardian spirits 507

Mandan belief about serpents and giants 507

Thunder lore of the Mandan 508

Astronomical lore 508

Mystery obj«^cts and places of the Mandan and Hidatsa 508

The mystery rock 508

Dreams 610

Oracles 610

Fetiches 510

Folklore 611

Sorcery 611

Jugglery 612

Ghost lore 512

The future life 612

Four as a mystic number among tho Mandan 513

Hidatsa cults 513

Hidatsa divinities 513

Animism 514

Worship of the elements, etc 614

Serpent worship 614

Fetiches 515

Tribal fetiches 515

Personal fetiches 515

Oracles 616

Dreams 516

Bcnlaches 516

AstroDoinical lore 517

Food lore 617

Four sonls in each human being 517

Sorcery 517

Disposal of the dead 518

Hidatsa belief as to future existence 518

Sapona cults 518

358 CONTENTS.

Chapter VII.— Concluding remarks 620

Peet on Indian religions 620

The author's reply 621

Colts of the elements 622

The four quarters 624

Symbolic colors 527

Colors in personal names 633

The earth powers 634

Earth gentes 634

The fire powers 534

Fire gentes 536

The wind-makei-H 536

Wind gentes 537

Each quarter reckoned as three ., 537

Names referring to other worlds 637

The water powers 537

Water people 538

Cautions and queries .' 538

Composite names 639

Personal names from homed beings 541

Names derived from several homogeneous objects or beings 542

Return of the spirit to the eponym 542

Functions of gentes and subgentes 642

The ''Messiah craze" 544

Epilogue 544

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Paga Plate XLIV. Siouan tents (A, tent of ^ejeqnta; B, tent of Mazi-jifiga

(man in the son) ; C, tent of Heqaga; D, tent of Kaxe-fa"ba's

father ; E, tent of Hnpe^a, Br., and Agaha-wacnce) 361

XLV. Camping circle at the time of the snn dance 454

XLVI. Thedancing lodge 458

XL VII. Scarification of candidates (1, Okl^ska naiin; 2, Ptepa

kin wadi 460

XL VIII. The sun dance 462

XLIX. A suspended devotee 464

L. The double woman 480

Fio. 156. George Miller's personal mystery decoration 894

157. Avariant of Hg. 156 804

158. Robe of Wanukige 895

159. Tent of Wanukige 396

160. Robeof 0aqube 396

161. Robeofc{ahe-!^ap<e 897

162. Generic decoration referring to night, etc 897

163. Tentof Anpa'^skajSr 398

164. Robe of A^pan-Bka, 8r 399

165. TentofMazi-jiliga (ghost vision) 399

166. A tent of Niku*iH»« 399

167. Another tent of Niku^bfan 899

168. Blanket of Cu^ia ma^^i^ 400

169. Tent of jfiset^ ; vision of a cedar 401

170. Tent of x©**" > sun and rainbow vision 401

171. Cornstalk decoration of the tents of Fire Chief and Waqaga 402

172. Robe of Ni-+actage 403

173. Duba-man^i°'s father's tent 408

174. Ma"tcu-na"ba's tent 408

175. Wacka"lii's tent . 404

176. Tent of an unknown Omaha 404

177. Tent of xebi*a 405

178. Tent of a Kansa who had an eagle vision 405

179. Kansa decorated tent 406

180. Kansa decorated tent 406

181. Ma°ze-giihe'8 robe 406

182. Ma"ze-guhe's tent 407

183. Duba-ma"^i«»*s father's blanket 407

184. Inke-sabd tent decoration • 408

185. I&ke-sabd tent decoration 409

186. Waqaga's robe 409

187. Sacred tent in which the pole was kept 413

188. Bear Butte, South Dakota 449

360 ILLUSTKATIONS.

Fig. 189. The "u-ma-ne" symbol 451

190. Eagle-wing flute 455

191. The tent of preparation and the dancing lodge 459

192. The ghoat lodge 4«7

193. The CPatada gentile circle 523

194. The four elements, etc 523

195. Kansa order of invoking winds, etc 525

196. Tsioa (Osage) order of placing the four sticks, etc 525

197. Pa°qka (Osage) order of placing the four sticks, etc 526

198. Ka>>se (Osage) order of ciroumambnlation 526

199. Showing how the Osage prepared the scalp for the dance 526

200. Omaha lightnings and the four quarters 527

I

r -5*

By James Owen Dobsbt.

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION. DEFINITIONS OF "CULT" AND "SIOUAN.'^

§ 1. GnJt, as used iu this article, means a system of religioas belief and worship, especially the rites and ceremonies employed in sach worship. The present article treats of the colts of a few of the Siouan tril)es — ^that is, with two exceptions, of such tribes as have been visited by the author.

"Siouan-' is a term originated by the Bureau of Ethnology. It is derived from "Sioux," the popular name for those Indians who call themselves " Dakota" or "Lakota." the latter being the Teton appellation. "Siouan" is used as an adjective, but, unlike its primitive, it refers not only to the Dakota tribes, but also to the entire linguistic stock or family.

SIOUAN FAMILY.

The Siouan family includes the Dakota, Assiniboin, Omaha, Ponka, Osage, Kansa, Kwapa, Iowa, Oto, Missouri, Winnebago, Mandan, Hidatsa, Grow, Tutelo, Biloxi, Catawba, and other Indians. The Sapona, who are now extinct, probably belonged to this family.

The author was missionary to the Ponka Indians, in what is now part of Nebraska, from I87I to 1873. Since 1878 he has acquired native texts and other information from the Omaha, Ponka, Osage, Kansa, Winnebago, Iowa, Oto, Missouri, and Dakota.

In seeking information respecting the ancient beliefs of the Indians the author has always found it expedient to question the Indian when no interpreter was present.

AUTHORITIES.

§ 2, Tbis study is based for the most part upon statements made by Indians, though several publications were consulted during the jn-eparation of the fifth and sixth chapters.

The following Indians had become Christians before the author met them : Joseph La Flfeche, Frank La Fleche, John Big Elk, and George Miller, all Omaha, Joseph La Flfeche, who died in 1888, was the leader of the civilization party in the Omaha tribe after 1855. He was at one time a head chief. He spoke several Indian languages, having spent years among other tribes, including the Pawnee, when he was in the service of the fur company. His son, Frank, has been in the Indian Bureau at Washington since 1881. The author has obtained considerable linguistic |;paterial from the father and son. The father, with Two Crows, aided the author in the summer of 1882 in revising his sociologic notes, resulting in the preparation of "Omaha Sociology," which was published in the third annual report of the director of the Bureau of Ethnology. John Big Elk, a full Omaha, of the Elk gens, furnished an article on '^Sacred Traditions and Customs," and several historical pai)ers, published in " Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. VI." George Miller, of the Ictasanda or Thunder gens, is a fall Omaha, from whom was obtained nearly half of Chapter iii, including most of the Omaha illustrations.

The following Indians were not Christians : Gahige, Two Crows, ^a^i"-na"pajl, and Samuel Fremont, all Omaha; Nuda^'-axa, aPonka; and the Kansa, Osage, Missouri, Iowa, and Winnebago informants.

Two Crows has been connected in several ways with the ancient organizations of his people. He has 1 een a head man, or nikagahi, being thus an ex-oflftcio member of the class which exercised the civil and religious functions of the state. He has been a policeman during the buffalo hunt. He has acted as captain, or war chief, and he is the leading doctor in the order of Buffalo shamans, being the keeper of the *' sweet medicine."

jaf i"-na"paj!, or He-who-fearsnot-the-sight-of-a-Pawnee, is a member of the BLack Bear subgens, and he is also one of the servants of the Elk gens, it being his duty to be present at the sacred tent of that gens, and to assist in the ceremonies pertaining to the invocation of the Thunder Beings.

Gahige was the chief of the Inke-sab^, a Buffalo gens, and at the time of his death he was the keeper of the two sacred pipes.

Samuel Fremont is a member of the Eagle subgens. He came to AVashingtou in the autumn of 1888. and assisted the author till February, 1889.

Nuda"-axa is a chief of a part of the Thunder-Being gens of the Pouka. The author has known him since 1871.

The other Indian authorities need not be named, as they are in substantial agreement.

The following authorities were consulted in the preparation of the Dakota and Assiniboin chapter :

Bri'yikr (John), a Dakota, MS. Tetou texts. 1888. Translated by himself. Bureau of Ethnology.

DOBSBT.I

AUTHORITIEfl — ALPHABET.

BusHOTTER (George), a Dakota, MS. Tetou t«xt«. 1887-88. Translated by J.

Owen Dorsey. Rnreau of Ethnology. Flktcher (Miss Alice C.)y The Sun-danoe of the Ogalalla Sioux. In Proc. Am. *

Assoc. Adv. Sci., Montreal meeting, 1882, pp.580-584. Fletcher (Miss Alice C), several articles in Rept. Peabody Museum, vol.3, 1884,

pp. 260-338. HovEY (Rev. H. C), "Eyay Shah," in Am. Antiquarian, Jan., 1887, pp. 35, 36. Long (Maj. S. H. ), Skiff Voyage to Falls of St. Anthony. In Minn. Histor. Soc.

Coll., vol. II, pt. 1, pp. 18, 19, 55. Lyxd (J. W.), Religion of the Dakotas. In Minn. Histor. Soc. Coll., vol. ii, pt. 2,

pp. 57-84. Pond (G. H.), Dakota Superstitions. In Minn. Histor. Soc. Coll., vol. ii, pt. 3, pp.

32-62. RiGGS (S. R.), Theogony of the Sioux. In Am. Antiquarian, vol. u. No. 4. pp, 265-

. In Am. Antiq., vol. v, 1883, p. 149.

. In Am. Philolog. Assoc. Proc., 3d An. Sess., 1872, pp. 5, 6.

. Tah-koo Wah-kon, or, The Gospel Among the Dakotas, 1869.

Sat (Thos.), in James (E.)« Account of Long's Exped. Rocky Mts., vol i, Phil., 1823. Shea (J. Gilmart), Am. Cath. Missions, N. Y. (after 1854). Smet ( Rev. P. J. de), Western Missions and Missionaries, N. Y. (n. d.). WooDBURN (Dr. J. M., Jr.), MS. Letter and Teton Vocabulary, 1890. Bureau of

Ethnology.

ALPHABET.

§ 3. With the exception of seven letters taken from Riggs's Dakota Dictionary, and which are used only in the Dakota words, the characters nsed in recording the Indian words occurring in this paper belong to the alphabet adopted by the Bureaa of Ethnology.

/."

a, as in father. % au initially exploded a. ft, ns in ichaty or as o in not, ^&, au initiaUy exploded il. ii, as in hat.

c, as 8h in she. See s.

0, a medial sh^ a sonant-surd.

d (Dakota letter), as oh in ohuroK, 9, as th in thin,

d, a medial 9, sonant-surd. ^, as th in the.

e, as in they.

*e, au inftially exploded e.

S, as in get.

'S, an initiaUy exploded 8.

g, as in go.

^ (in Dakota), gh. See x.

q (in Osage), au h after a pure or nasalized vowel, expelled through the mouth with the lips wide apart.

h (in Dakota), kh, etc. See q.

i, as in machine.

% an initially exploded i.

1, as in pin.

j, as ^ in azure^ or as j in the French

Jacques. i[. a medial k, a sonant-surd, k', an exploded k. See next letter. If (in Dakota), an exploded k.

1. (in Dakota), after a vowel has the sound

off! in the French hon. See ". m (in Kansa), a medial m, a sound between

m and b. fi, as ng in sing. hn, its initial sound is expelled from the

nostrils and is scarcely heard, o, as in no.

'o, an initially exploded o. d, a medial b or p, a sonant-surd, p', an exploded p. q, as German ch in €ich. See h. 9f a medial z or s, a sonant-surd. ^ (in Dakota), as «A in she. See c. %. a medial d or t, a sonant-surd, t^ an exploded t. u, as 00 in tool. 'u, an initially exploded u. ft, as 00 in foot.

i iji' lultfOtA'iiiir ii«iv^ t)ii <f<iiiuarv JbhoriMlb •uniid^ : L. d. L. k. I. lu. li.

'j^i**; %'i^^if: 'n. •*-.. 'L -V. -u. aii<i tiMUY iuudJli«:tfiaBU^ Kre «rriecl inmkCr

4:tMie ^hj uutuii ^xv^^f^i' TirtjH^ V4.nii'«l^ «ttXi not litr ckDtfd -lirBBEiii&." ^^ iM> a«»yii4fttHHi if iu»iHd v'xtl aifv uf tii^ttti: liur «uj tiier be f^^oi <tf

M^iOKLr, Jiu-y i4i>^ kjiki0^.u iiiMiXkO by tJb^ «utbur not inDj m tbe Skttiai

M/v. u^^vthi^, kit. — itmuitwiU:.

CHAPTER II.

DEFINITIONS. ALLEGED BELIEF IN A GREAT SPIRIT.

§ 4. It has been asserted for several hundred years that the North American Indian was a believer in one Great Spirit prior to the coming of the white race to this continent, and that, as he was a monothe- ist, it was an easy matter to c<mvert him to Christianity. Indians have been represented as speaking of '^The Great Spirit,^ '*The Master of Life,'' etc., as if the idea of the one and only God was familiar to our aborigines during the pre-Columbian period.

While the author is unwilling to commit himself to a general denial of this assertion, he has been forced to conclude that it needs considerable modification, at least so far as it refers to the tribes of the Siouan stock. (See §§ 7,15,21-43, 72-79, 92-lK), 311, 312, 322-326, 341-346.)

On close investigation it will be found that in many cases Indians have been quick to adopt the phrases of civilization in communicating with white people, but in speaking to one another they use their own terms. The student of the uncivilized races must ever be on his guard against leading questions and their answers. The author has learned by experience that it is safer to let the Indian tell his own story in his own words than to endeavor to question him in such a manner as to reveal what answers are desired or expected.

§ 5. In 1883 the author publislie<l an article on '*The Beligion of the Omahas and Ponkas," in The American Antiquarian of Chicago. Since then he has obtained additional data, furnishing him with many undesigned coincidences, which lead him to a broader view of the subject.

PHENOMENA DIVIDED INTO HUMAN AND SUPERHUMAN.

§ 6. In considering the subject from an Indian's point of view, one must avoid speaking of the supernatural as distinguished from the natural. It is safer to divide phenomena as they appear to the Indian mind into the human and the superhuman, as many, if not most natural phenomena are mysterious to the Indian. Nay, even man himself may become mysterious by fasting, prayer, and vision.

One fruitful source of en*or has been a misunderstanding of Indian terms and phrases. It is very important to attempt to settle the exact meanings of certain native words and phrases ere we proceed further with the consideration of the subject.

366 A STUDY OP 8I0UAN CULTS.

TEBMS FOR *^ IfYSTEBIOUS,^ " LIGHTNi:*G," ETC.

§ 7. The attention of the aathor having been calle<l to the article on "Serpent Symbolism" of the Iroqnoian languages, by Mr. Hewitt' of the Bureaa of Ethnology, a similar investigation of the Siooan terms was made, the results of which are now presented. In connection with the terms for "serpent," Mr. Hewitt showed how they are related in the languages with which he was familiar with other terms, such as "demon," "devil," "wizard," "witch," "subtile," "occult," "mysterious," and " sux)eniatural."

In Dakota we find the following: Waka", mysterious, wonderful, incomprehensible, often rendered "holy" by the missionaries; waka°-hdi (in Sant^e), waka°-kdi (in Tankton), lightning, perhaps containing a reference to a zigzag line or forked lightning; waka° etco°, to practice sleight of hand ; and wa"mdncka, serpent. Thereare many derivatives of waka°, among which are, Taku Waka°, literally "something mysterious," rendered "some one mysterious," or "holy being," aiidWaka°- tafika, literally, "Great mysteriona (one)," both of which terms are now applied to God by the missionaries and their converts, though Waka°- tanka is a name for the Thunder-being.

In Eiggs's alphabet (Contr. N. A. Ethu., Vol. vil), these words are thus written: Wakai), wakai)hdi, wakaijkdi, wakai) e6og, wai)mdu^ka, Taku Wakai), and Wakai}tai)ka. One of the Dakota words for " aged" is ka° (kai) in Riggs's alphabet) ; but though this refers to persons we can not tell whether it is related to waka° (or wakai}).

In the i/^egiha, the language spoken by the Ponka and Omaha, Wakanda means " the mysterious" or "i>owerful one," and it is applied in several senses. It is now used to denote the God of monotheism. Some of the old people say that their ancestors always believed in a supreme Wakanda or Mysterious Power. It sometimes refers to the Thunder-being. On one occasion, a Ponka shaman. Cramped Hand, said to the author: "I am a Wakanda." Wakandagi, as a noun, means a subterranean or water monster, a large horned reptile mentioned in the myths, and still supposed to dwell beneath the bluffs along the Missouri Eiver. With this term compare the Dakota Unkteqi (Ugktehi, of Riggs) and the Winnebago Waktceqi, the latter having given a name to the Water Monster gens (Waktceqi ikikaratcada). Wakandagi is sometimes usi^ adverbially, as, si wakandagi, he is wonderfuUy stingy ! le wakandagi, he (a small child) speaks surprisingly well (for one so young) ! x^°f ^° wakandagi, he runs very well (for one so young)! Ma"^i" wakandagi, he (a small child) walks very well! Wakandif e, to be in great haste, perhaps contains the idea of putting forth a great effort in order to accomplish something speedUy. W^s% a serpent, is not related to the others just given. Nor can the word for "wizard" or "-conjuj^er" be found related to them. In Kansa, Wa-

Aid. Authrupologiat, April. 1889. pp. 179,180.

DOR8BY.1 OTHER OMAHA AND PONKA TERMS. 367

kanda is ased of saperhuman beings or x>owers, as in Omaha and Ponka, but the author never heard a shaman apply the term to himself. Wakandagi has another meaning, mysterious, wonderful, incomprehensible, as, nika wakandagi, mysterious man, shaman, juggler, doctor; nanii&°ba wakandagi, mysterious or sacred pipe; wakandagi wagaxe, the sleightof-hand tricks of the mysterious men and women. Wakanda qudje, the gray mysterious one, the elephant. Waka" does not mean serpent, but pumpkin, answering to the Omaha and Ponka, wata°, and to the Osage, wakqa** and watqa". pjyets'a (almost, Byets^a) is the Kansa word for a 8eri>ent.

In Osage, Waka"^a answers to the Kansa Wakanda, and Waqka°- ((a-:3[i is the same as the Kansa, Wakandagi. Wets^a is a serpent. In Kwapa, Waka^^a^^i seems to answer to the Kansa Wakandagi.

In xoiwere (Iowa, Oto, Missouri), Waka°^a is the same as the Kansa Wakanda. Waka° means a serpent. Waka" ki}[ra((oe, the Serpent gens. Wa hu-pri", mysterious, as a person or animal; but wa-qo-nyita", myst<)rious, as an inanimate object.

In the Winnebago, three names for superhuman beings have been found. One is Wa5[U"8e or Wagu°ze, which can not be translated; another is Ma°^u"-na, Earth-maker, the third being Qo-pi°-ne qe-te-ril, Great Mysterious One. Qopi"ne seems related to waqopini (with which compare the xi>i^^r®» wahupri"), a term used to distinguish people of other races from Indians, just as in Dakota wacitcu" (in Kiggs's alphabet, wa^i^uij), now used for " white man," ** black man,'' etc., retains in the Teton dialect its ancient meaning of superhuman being or guardian spirit. Wakawa"x, in Winnebago, denotes a witch or wizard. Waka°-na is a serpent, and waka" ikikaratca-da, the Ser[)ent gens; Waka°tca, or Waka"tca-ra, thunder, the Thunder- Being; Waka°- tcanka-ra, a shaman or mysterious man.

OTHER OMAHA AND PONKA TERMS.

§ 8. Other terms are given Jis being pertinent to the subject. They occur in the language of the Omaha and Ponka. Qube, mysterious as a person or animal (all animals were persons in ancient times); but a mysterious inanimate object is spoken of as being " waqube.'^ Uqube means the mysteriousness of a human being or animal. Uqubea{ja^ica°, pertaining to such mysteriousness. Wakandaaa^ica", per- taining or referring to Wakanda. Nikie is a term that refers to a mythical ancestor, to some part of his body, to some of his acts, or to some ancient rite ascribed to him. A "nikie name" is a personal name of such a character. I^a^e^, literally, ^'to pity him on account of it, granting him certain power." Its primary reference is to the mysterious animal, but it is transferred to the person having the vision, hence, it means " to receive mysterious things from an animal, as in a vision after fasting; to see as in a vision, face to face (not

in a dream) ; to see wheu awake, aud in a mysterious manner having a conversation with the animal about mysterious things/'

§ 9. The names for grandfather, grandmother, and old man are terms of veneration, sai)erhuman beings having these names applied to them in invocations. (See §§ 16, 99.)

SIGNIFICANCE OF PERSONAL NAMES AND KINSHIP TERMS.

In a note up n **The Religious Ceremony of the Four Winds or Quarters, as Observed by the Santee Sioux," Miss Fletcher^ remarks: <^ A name implies relationship, and consequently protection; favor and influence are claimed from the source of the name, whether this be the gens or the vision. A name, therefore, shows the affiliation of the individual; it grades him, so to speak, and he is apt to lean upon its implied power. ♦ ♦ • The sacred import of a name in the mind of the Indian is indicated in that part of the ceremony where the <^ Something that moves^' seems to overshadow and inclose the child, and addresses the wakan man as fsither. The wakan man replies, calling the god, child, at the same time invoking the supernatural protection and care for the boy, as he lays at the teet of the messenger of Unseen Power the offerings of gifts and the honor of the feast. The per- sonal name' among Indians, therefore, indicates the protecting presence of a deity, an<l must, therefore, partake of the ceremonial charac- ter of the Indian's religion.''

In this ceremony the sui)erhuman being is addressed by the term implying juniority y and the human being, the wakan man, by that associated with fttmioritpj an apparent reversal of the usual custom ; but, doubtless, there can be found some explanation tor this seeming exception to the rule.

MYTH AND LEGEND DISTINGUISHED FROM THE SUPERHUMAN.

§ 10. The Omaha, Ponka, and cognate tribes distinguish at the present day between the myth (higa°, higu) and the legend or story (iuf a, etc.) on the one hand, and what on the other hand is called ^^ Wakanda^a^ica"," '' nqnbea:|a^ica"," and " ifa'ef f a/jaf ica"." The former are told only for amusement and are called, "iusieta" iufa," lying tales. They are regarded a-^ '•iqawa^6a:jafiea°," pertaining to the ludicrous. With this may be compared the statements of Lang :^

^^Among the lowest aud most backward, as among the most advanced races, there coexist the mythical and the religious elements in belief. Tlie rational factor (or what approves itself to us as the rational factor) is visible in religion; the irrational is prominent in myth.'' • ♦ ♦ u The rational and irrational aspects of mythology and rehgion may be of coeval antiquity for all that is ceiijainly known, or either of

Op. cit., p. 295.

• And ii1b4» the kinship term in Home ciumw.

'Myth. Ritual and Religion, pp. 328,329.

them, in the dark backward of mortal experience, may have preceded the other." The author has found certain Indian myths which abound in what to the civilized mind is the grossest obscenity, and that too without the slightest reference to the origin of any natural phenomena. Myths of this class appear to have been told from a love of the obscene. Nothing of a mysterious or religious character can be found in them. Perhaps such myths are of modern origin ; but this must remain an enigma.

§ 11. The Omaha and Ponka are in a transition state, hence many of their old customs and beliefs are disappearing. Some have been lost within the past fifty years, others within the last decade, according to unimpeachable testimony. The Ponka are more conservative than the Omaha, and the Kansa and Osage are more so than the Ponka, in the estimation of the author.

§ 12. Though it has been said that the Indians feared to tell myths except on winter nights (and some Indians have told this to the author), the author has had no trouble in obtaining myths during the day at various seasons of the year.

§ 13. James Alexander, a full Winnebago of the Wolf gens and anon- Christian, told the author that the myths of the Winnebago, called wai-ka"-na by them, have undergone material change in the course of transmission, and that it is very probable that many of them are entirely different from what they were several generations ago. Even in the same tribe at the present day, the author has found no less than three versions of the same myth, and there may be otliers.

The myth of the Big Turtle is a case in point.* The narrator acknowledged that he had made some additions to it himself.

§ 14. No fasting or prayer is required before one can tell a myth. Far different is it with those things which are '' Wakandaijaf ica"," or are connected with visions or the secret societies. This agrees in the main with what Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of Ethnology, has learned from the Cherokee of North Carolina. Mr. Frank H. Gushing has found that the Zuiii Indians distinguish between their folk-lore and their cult-lore, i. e., between their legends and mythic tales on the one hand, and their dramatized stories of creation and their religious observances on the other, a special name being given to each class of knowledge. To them the mythic tales and folk-lore in general are but the fringe of the garment, not the garment itself. When they enact the creation story, etc., they believe that they are repeating the circumstances represented, and that they are then surrounded by the very beings referred to in the sacred stories. Similar beliefs were found by Dr. Washington Matthews, as shown in his article entitled ^'The Prayer of a Navajo Shaman," published in the American Anthropologist of Washington, D. C, for April, 1888.

• See Contr. N. A. Ethn. Vol. vi, 271-277. 11 ETH 24

370 A STUDY OP SIOUAN CULTS.

§ 15. At the same time there seems to be some connection between certain myths and the personal names called, " nikie names.'' This will be considered in detail in a future monograph on " Indian Personal Names,'' now in course of preparation. One example must sulQ&ce for the present. In the 5[a°ze gens of the Omaha there is a nikie name, j^asi duba. Four Peaks. The author did not understand its derivation until he studied the myth of Haxige and observed the prayers made in gathering the stones for the sweat-bath. Each stone was invoked as a venerable man (see § 9), the Four Peaks were mentioned several times, and the two superior deities or chief mysterious ones (Wakanda ^aiiga agfaniia°ha° hnankace) were invoked.'

This last refers to the Wakanda residing above and the one in the ground. It is therefore possible that in past ages the Siouan tribes did not differentiate between the myth and what is " Wakandai^a^ica"." But we have no means of proving this.

§ 16. Most of the Omaha governmental instrumentalities (^^ wewaspe") were " Wakandai^a^ica^," but there were things that were " Wakanda- (^afica"," which were not " wewaspe," such as the law of catamenial seclusion.

1 Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. Tl, pp. 234,242

CHAPTER III.

CULTS OF THE OMAHA, PONKA, KANSA, AND OSAGE. BELIEFS AND PRACTICES NOT FOUND.

§ 17. There are certain beliefs and practices which have not been found among the four tribes whose cults are treated of in this chapter. Ancestors were not worshiped. They were addressed reverently when alive, and when they died it was not contrary to custom to refer to them by name, nor did their deaths involve the change of name for a single object or phenomenon. It was a very common occurrence for the name of the deceased to be assumed by a surviving kinsman. This is shown by genealogical tables of a few Siouan tribes, the material for which was collected by the author, and which will form part of his monograph on " Indian Personal Names, ^ now in course of preparation for publication by the Bureau of Ethnology.

§ 18. They never heard of Satan or the devil until they learned of him from the white people. Now they have adopted the terms, "Wandxe piiijl," ''Ingf a"xe piajl," and " Wakanda piajl," The first is used by the Omaha and Ponka, the others were heard only among the Ponka. They have a certain saying, applicable to a young man who is a liar, or who is bad in some other way: "Wandxe pia'jl ^ga° dha"," i. e. "He is like the bad spirit!" This becomes, when addressed to the bad person, *'Wanaxe pia'jl 6fikiga°'-qti ja"'," i. e. ** You act just like the (or a) bad spirit."

§ 19. Though it has been said that hero worship was unknown among the Omaha and Ponka, it has been learned that Omaha mothers used to scare their unruly children by telling them that Icibajl (a hero of the Xe-slnde gens) or his friend j^exiya" (a hero of the ]ga"ze gens) would catch them if they did not behave. There was no worship of demi> gods, as demigods were unknown. Two Crows and Joseph La Fl^che said that phallic worship was unknown, and they were surprised to hear that it had been practiced by any tribe. (See § 132, 164.) As the Ponka obtained the sun-dance from their Dakota neighbors, it is probable that they practiced the phallic cult.

§ 20. Totems and shamans were not worshiped, though they are still reverenced. Altars or altar-stones were unknown. Incense was not used, unless by this name we refer to the odor of tobacco smoke as it ascended to the Thunder being, or to the use of cedar fronds in the sweat lodge. There were no human sacrifices, and cannibalism was not practiced.

OMAHA, PONKA, AND KANSA BELIEF IN A WAKANDA.

§ :il. According to Two Crows and Joseph La F16cbe, the ancestors of the Omaha and Ponka believed that there was a Supreme Being, whom they called Wakanda. ^^Wakanda t*a"i t6 efega°i, they believed that Wakanda existed." They did not know where He was, nor did they undertake to say how He existed. There was no public gathering at which some of the people told others that there was a Wakanda, nor was there any general assembly for the purpose of offering Him worship and prayer. Each person thought in his heart that Wakanda existed. Some addressed the sun as Wakanda, though many did not so regard him. Many addressed Wakanda, as it were, blindly or at random. Some wor8hii)ed the Thunder-being under this name. This was especially the case when men undertook to go on the war path.

*Mr. Say recorded of the Kansa: ''They say that they have never seen Wakanda, so they cannot pretend to personify Him; but they have often heard Him speak in the thunder. They often wear a shell which is in honor or in representation of Him, but they do not pretend that it resembles Him, or has anything in common with his form, organization, or size.^'

SEVEN GREAT WAKANDAS.

§ 22. ja^i°-na°-p£yl said that there were seven great Wakandas, as follows : " TJgahanadaze or Darkness, Maxe or the Ui)per World, x*^^^< ■ or the Ground, liigf a" or the Thunder-being, Mi° or the Sun, Nia"ba or the Moon, and the Morning Star. The principal Wakanda is in the upper world, above everything.'' (This was denied by Joseph La Fleche and Two Crows; see §93.) The author thought at first that these were the iwwers wi)rshiped by jaf i"-na°pajl and the members of his gens or subgens; but subsequent inquiries and statements occurring in the course of texts furnish cumulative evidence favoring the view that some or all these powers had many believers among the Omaha and the cognate tribes.

INVOCATION OF WARMTH AND STREAMS.

§ 23. ^jaf i"-na"pajl said that Macte or Warmth was a good Wakanda. Ni fi", the flowing Stream, according to him, was thus addressed by a man who wished to ford it: '< You are a person and a Wakanda. 1^ too, am a jierson. I desire to pass through you and reach the other side." Two Crows denied this, saying that his people never prayed to a stream; but George Miller said that it was true, for his father, Little Soldier, prayed to a sti*eam when he was on the war path, and that such invocations were made only in time of war.

iSe<* .lainett. Account Expod. to Rocky Mouutoinii, vol. i, p. 126.

i>oRSEY.i PRAYER. 373

PRATER TO WAKANDA.

§ 24. Prayer to Wakanda, said La Fl^che and Two Crows, was not made for small matters, such as going fishing, but only for great and important undertakings, such as going to war or starting on a journey. When a man wished to travel he first went alone to a bluft', where he l)raycd to Wakanda to help him and his family by protecting them during his absence and by granting him a successful journey. At a time when the Ponka were without food, Horse-with-yellow-hair, or Cange-hi"-zi, prayed to Wakanda on the hill beyond the Stony Butte. The latter is a prominent landmark in northern !N"ebraska (in what was Todd county, Dakota, in 1871 -'73), about 7 miles from the Missouri River and the Ponka Agency (of 1870-'77). Several Omaha said that the places for i^rayer were rocks, high blufi's, and mountains. " All Omaha went to such places to pray, but they did not pray to the visible object, though they called it Grandfather." — (Frank La Fleche.) They smoked towards the invoked object and placed gifts of killickinnick, etc., upon it. Compare with this the Dakota custom of invoking a bowlder on the prairie, calling it TQuka"cida" (Tugkaijsidai)), or Grandfather, symbolizing the Earth-being.^ Though it has been said that a high bluff was merely a place for praying to Wakanda, and that it was not itself addressed as Wakanda, the author has lejirned from members of the Omaha and Ponka tribes that when they went on the warpath for the first time, their names were then changed and one ot the old men was sent to the bluff's to tell the news to the various Wakandas, including the bluff's, trees, birds, insects, reptiles, etc.^

ACCESSORIES OF PRAYER.

Among the accessories of prayer were the following: (a) The action called 'fistube by the Omaha and Ponka, ri5towe by the three j^oiwere tribes, and yuwi^tapi (yuwigtapi) by the Dakota, consisting of the elevation of the suppliant's arms with the palms toward the object or the face of the being invoked, followed by a passage of the hand downward toward the ground, without touching the object or person (see §§ 28, 35, 36). (b) The presentation of the pipe with the mouthpiece toward the power invoked (see §§ 29, 35, 40). (c) The use of smoke from the pipe (See § § 27, 36), or of the odor of burning cedar needles, as in the sweat lodge, (d) The application of the kinship term, ' grandfather," or its alternative, "venerable man," to a male power, and " grandmother" to a female power (see §§ 30, 31, 35, 39, 59, 60, etc.). (e) Ceremonial wailing or crying (Xage, to wail or cry — Dakota 6eya. See § 100). (/) Sacrifice or offering of goods, animals, pieces of the

' See Jour. Amer. Folk-lore. vol. i, No. 1, p. 73.

^See ;^ 132-136, and Tui)kai)i^ila, in Kiggs's Dakota-English Dictionary, Contr. X. A. Ethnology,

vol. VII.

• See Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. vi, pp. 372, 373, 376, and Omaha Sociology, in 3d Ann. Kept. Bar. Ethnology, pp. 324, 325. « Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. vi. p. 394, lines 10-19; p. 395, lines 14>16.

suppliant's flesh, etc. In modern times the Kansa have substituted the lives of animals, as deer, grouse, etc., for those of human enemies (see §§ 28, 33, etc.).

OMAHA AMD KANSA EXPRESSIONS ABOUT WAKANDA.

§ 25. Samuel Fremont said that before the advent of the white race the Omaha had certain expressions which they used in speaking of Wakanda. When an Indian met with unexpected good fortune of any sort the people used to say, "Wakanda has given him some assistance."* Or they might say, "Wakanda knows him."^ Sometimes they said, "Wakanda has planned for his own (i. e., for his friend, relation, or subject)."^ If a Kansa prospers, he says, "Wakan'da ak& a°ma"'yuxu'dje aka' eyati," i. e., " Wakanda has indeed been looking at me!" And in speaking of the success of another, he says, " Wakan'da akd nika yiuk^? uyii'xiidje akd eyau,'' i. e.," Wakanda has indeed been looking at the man."

Samuel Fremont said that when an animal detected the approach of the hunter and consequently fled from him, the man prayed thus: Hau', Wakan'da, wani'ta wi^ a°^44 6i"te cl i^f^gfize 6ga°. CI wi°'

Ho, Wakanda, quadruped one you gave i>er* again you take some- again one

to me haps yours what

back from mo

waf ionaa°f 4kife ka°bf ^ga°,

you cause to appear I hope

tome

i. e., "Ho, Wakanda, you may have given me an animal, but now it seems that you have taken it from me. I hope that you will cause another to appear to me.'' But if the hunter shot at an animal and missed it, he said nothing.

PONKA BELIEF ABOUT MALEVOLENT SPIRITS.

§ 26. About eighteen years ago, the author was told by the Ponka, whose reservation was then in southern Dakota, that they believed death to be caused by certain malevolent spirits, whom they feared. In order to prevent ftiture visits of such spirits, the survivors gave away all their property, hoping that as they were in such a wretched plight the spirits would not think it worth while to make them more unhappy. At the burial of Mazi-kide, an Omaha, the author observed that some cue approached the corpse and addressed it. In refemng to this in 1888, Samuel Fremont said that the speaker said, ^^ Wakanda ha^ caused your death." In telling this, Fremont used the singular, " Wakanda aka." On repeating this to George Miller, the latter said that it should have been "Wakanda ama,'^ in the plural, " the Mysterious Powers,'^ as the Omaha believed in more than one Wakanda before they learned about the one God of monotheism.

1 Wakanda aka uii|a*i egaP. * Wakanda aka ibaha'i. 'Wakanda aka igif ig^i.

This agrees with what was learned about the Dakota by the late missionaries, Messrs. S. K. Biggs and G. H. Pond, and by the late James W. Lynd, as stated in chapter v.

Alf OLD OMAHA CUSIOM.

§ 27. "Abicude," said Samuel Fremont, ^* is a word which refers to an old Omaha and Ponka custom, i. e., that of blowing the smoke downward to the ground while praying. The Omaha and Ponka used to hold the pipe in six directions while smoking : toward the four winds, the ground, and the upper world. The exact order has been forgotten by Fremont, but Lewis and Clarke have recorded the corresponding Shoshoni custom. Gapt. Lewis tells how the Shoshoni chief, after lighting his pipe of transparent greenstone (instead of catlinite), made a speech, after which he pointed the stem of the pipe toward the four points of the heavens, beginning with the east and concluding with the north. After extending the stem thrice toward Capt. Lewis, he pointed it first toward the heavens and then toward the center of the little circle of guests, probably toward the ground, symbolizing the subterranean power. *

In addressing the four winds, a peculiar expression is employed by the Omaha:

Xad6 d(iba hi^af 6 ^iif i°c6, i" win'i[aM-ga, Thou who causest the four

Wind four you cause yon (sing.) help ye me.

it to reach who move there

winds to reach a place, help ye me! Instead of the singular classifier, ^a^i°ce, the regular i>lural, nankac^, ye who sit, stand, or move, might have been expected. (See § 33.)

In smoking toward the ground and upper world, the suppliant had to say, ^' I petiticm to you who are one of the two, you who are reclining on your back, and to you who are the other one, sitting directly above us. Both of you help me!'' "Here," said Fremont, "the ground itself was addressed as a person." Two Crows said that some Omaha apx>ealed to a subterranean Wakanda when their word was doubted, saying, "Pc^dge hidea^a ak4 a'^nd^a^i," "The venerable man at the bottom hears me." The author is unable to say whether this was x^'^^^ ^^ Wakandagi. (See § 37.)

The following was recorded of the Omaha, and refers to a custom relating to the buffalo hunt.*

Ou coming iu sight of the herd, the huaters talk kindly to their horses, ajiplying to them the endearing names of father, brother, ancle, etc. They petition them not to fear the bisons, but to ran well and keep close to them, but at the same time to avoid being gored.

The party ^having approached as near to the herd as they suppose the animals will permit without taking alarm, they halt to give the pipe bearer an opportunity

■Lewis and Clarke, Expedition, ed. Allen, Dublin, vol. i, 1817, pp. 457, 458; alao M'Yiokar'a abridgment of the same. Harpers, N. Y., vol. i, 1842, p. 303.

• James's Account of Long's Exped., Phila., vol, i, 1823, p. 208.

to perform the ceremony of smoking, which is cousidered necessary to their success. He lights his pipe, and remains a short time with his head incline<l, and the stem of the pipe extended toward the herd. He then smokeS; and puffs the smoke toward the bisons, and the earth, and finally to the cardinal points successively.

THE SUN A WAKANDA.

§28. In the Osage traditions the '* mysterious one of day'' is invoked as ^' grandfather." *

He replies that he is not the only Wakan^a. That the Kansa worshiped the san as a Wakanda appears from the following: ^^On one occasion, when the Kansa went against the Pawnees, the stick was set up for the mystic attack or ' waqpele gaxe.' The war captain addressed the rising sun thus:

"Pdyi" dqli kti^'bla eyad. Oiin'ge w^bli° all k&°'bla eya6.

Pawnee I stun by I wish indeed. Horse I have I have I wish indeed,

hitting them come back

Wayii'qi)e cki kii°'bla eyati. Hal6je uraiblage. Haqi°' umiblage.

Palling down too I wish indeed. Calico (shirt) I tell you Bohie I tell you

(a foe) about it. about it.

Haska cki P^yi° dqli-da"' mlk'u tk iniiike, Wdkauda-6, 6 gil'a°yakiy6-

Blanket too Pawnee I stun when I gi> e to will I who O Wakanda ! that yon cause me to

by hitting yon (ait) be returning

da"*.

when.

"I wish to kill a Pawnee! I desire to bring horses when I return. I long to pull down an enemy! I promise you a calico shirt and a robe. I will give you a blanket also, O Wakanda, if you allow me to return in safety after killing a Pawnee!" When warriors performed the "waqpele gaxe" or the attack on the stick representing the foe, no member of the Lii or Thunder gens could participate. On such an occasion the warrior turned to the east and said: "A"ma°'pye kti^'bla a6. Hask&

To follow me (f) I wish . Blanket

or We follow it (?)

umiblage afi, W&kanda-6," i. e., 1 wish my party to pass along the

I tell you of it • O Wakanda

road to the foe ( !). I promise you a blanket, O Wakanda (if I succeed f ). " On turning to the west he said: "U^'hii'* uraiblage aii, Wdkanda-^*,"

Boiling I tell you of it O Wakanda

i. e., "I promise you a least, O Wakanda (if I succeed!),"

When it was decided to perform the " waqpele gaxe," the duda"hanga or war captain made one of the lieutenants carry the sacred bag, and two of the kettle tenders took bundles of sticks, which they laid down in the road. The four remaining kettle tenders remained at the camping place. The next morning all the warriors but those of the Lu gens went to the place where the sticks had been laid, drew a circle around the bundles, set up one of the sticks, and attacked it, as if it were a Pawnee, l^is ceremony often caused the death of real enemies.

Among the Osage and Kansa prayer was made toward the rising sun in the morning and towards the setting sun in the afternoon and evening.

• Ha. witsiJiae. 6th Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., p. 385. line PO; p. 389, line 50; p. 391. line 4. etc.

Among the Omaha and Kansa the head of a coqjse is laid towards the east. For this reason no Omaha will consent to recline with his head towards that point. The Kansa lodges also are orientated, and so were those of the Omaha (see §59). The east appears to symbolize life or the source thereof, but ^ the west refers to death; so among the Osage the course of a war party was towards the mythic or symbolic west, towards which point the entrances of the lodges were turned^ (see §§ 83 and 384).

Gahige, the late Omaha chief, said that when he was young all the Omaha prayed to the sun, holding up their hands with the palms towards the sun and saying, "Wakadda, ^'ea^'^a-gft," etc., i. e., "O Wakanda, pity me!" They abstained from eating, drinking, and (ordinary) smoking from sunrise to sunset ; but after sunset the restrictions were removed.^

For four nights the men who thus prayed did not sleep at home. At the end of that period the task was finished. "Xwacka" gdxai,^' i. e., they made or gained superhuman power. They could thus pray at any time from the appearance of grass in the spring until the ground became frozen.

THE OFFERING OF TOBACCO.

§ 20. In 1889 George Miller gave an account of what he called "Nini bahai W^," i. e. the oflTeriug or presentation of tobacco. Whether this phrase was ever used except in a religious or superhuman connection is more than the author is able to say. Whenever the Indians traveled they used all the words which follow as they extended the pipe with the mouthpiece toward the sun : "Ha(i, nini gak6' Wakan'da,

Ho tobacco that Wakanda

Ig. ob.

Mi°' ^ nink6'c6! Ujaii'ge ^i^f{ja k6 ^ga°qti udha t^ fi. Ingdxa-ga!

Sun this you who nit Road your the just so I follow will ! Make it for me

Ig. ob. itfi course

Ed^da° ct^cte lida^qti ^kipanki^a'-ga! Ed^da" jiiajl wi°' fdedite ^V

What Boever very goi)d x^use nu> to mtet it What JDfeHor one it Ia there if

ibeta°anki^a-ga ! (fi'-na° ^musta wa^iona fag^i"', nf-u*an'da f^fa"

cause me to pass Only thou directly in ftight you Hit island this

around it above (us) place

^6^a°ska 6dega", eddda" wanita c^an'de ucka°'cka" f a° b^iigaqti nikaci"ga

this large but what quadruped ground mv. on it here the all person

and there

f a°' ct^wa"' wi"' a°'ba ata°' ifaoni'g^a" ^T, ^ga"-na°. Ada" wi'^a-na"-

the soever one day how you decide for when always so. There- I ask a favor

long liim fore of you

ma"' hi1, Wakan'da" This maybe rendered freely thus: "Ho, Mysalono Wakanda

terious Power, you who are the Sun ! Here is tobacco ! I wish to follow your course. Grant that it may be so! Cause me to meet whatever is good (i. e., for my advantage) and to give a wide berth to

"Am. Naturalist, Feb. 1884, p. 126; /Wd., July, 1885, p. 670. -'Ibid., Feb. 1884, pp. 115, 116, 117. 120, 123, 125.

' A similar rule about fasting obtained among the Kansa when mourning for the dead. See Amer Naturalist, July, 1885. pp. 670, 672, 679.

anything that may be to my injury or disadvantage. Throughout this island (the world) you regulate everything that moves, including human beings, when you decide for one that his last day on earth has come, it is so. It can not be delayed. Therefore, O Mysterious Power, I ask a favor of you."

THE PONKA SUN DANCE OF 1873.

In the summer of 1873, when the author was missionary to the Ponka in what was Todd County, Dakota, that tribe had a sun dance on the prairie near the mission house. The scarifications and subsequent tortures and dancing lasted but three hours instead of a longer period, owing to the remonstrances of Bishop Hare, the agent, and the missionary. The head chief, White Eagle, was tied to his pony, after he had been scarified and fastened to the sun pole. Some of his policemen, armed with whii)s, lashed the pony until it leaped aside, tearing out the lariat that fastened the chief to the sun pole, and terminating his participation in the ceremony. (See PI. xlvi and § 187.) For obvious reasons the author did not view the sun dance, but he was told about it by some of the spectators. As the chief, Standing Buifalo, had said to Bishop Hare in the council previous to the sun dance, *' You white people pray to Wakanda in your way, and we Indians pray to Wakanda in the sun dance. Should you chance to lose your way on the prairie you would perish, but if we got lost we would pray to Wakanda in the sun dance, and find our way again."

THE MOON A WAKANDA.

§ 30. No examples of invocations of the moon have yet been found among the Omaha and Ponka. But that the moon is "qube" appears from the decorations of robes and tents. (See §§ 45-47.)

The moon is addressed as a "grandfather" and is described as the "Wakanda of night" in "Osage Traditions," lines 55-59.^

BEUDACHES.

The Omaha believe that the unfortunate beings, called "Mi°-qu-ga,'' are mystenous or sacred because they have been affected by the Moon Being. When a young Omaha fasted for the first time on reaching puberty, it was thought that the Moon Being appeared to him, holding in one hand a bow and arrows and in the other a pack strap, such as the Indian women use. When the youth tried to grasp the bow and arrows the Moon Being crossed hia hands very quickly, and if the youth was not very careful he seized the pack strap instead of the bow and arrows, thereby fixing his lot in after life. In such a case he could not help acting the woman, speaking, dressing, and working just as Indian women used to do. Louis Sanssouci said that the mi°-quga took other men as their husbands. Frank La Fleche knew one such

1 See 6th Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn.. pp. 385. 389.

man, who had had several men as his husbands. A Ponka child ouce said to the author, "Mi^jifiga-ma nujifiga auia (ji-gaxe-uaudi, mi"quga, ai,'^ i. e., ^^If boys make a practice of playing with the girls they become (or are called) mi"quga." This term may be rendered "hermaph- rodite" when it refers to animals, as '';e mi°quga," a hermaphrodite buffalo. It must have been of this class of persons, called "Mi"-quge^ by the Kansa that Say wrote when he said:

Many of the subjects of it (i. e., sodomy among the Kansa) are publicly known, aud do not appear to be despised or to excite disgust. One was pointed out to us. He had submitted himself to it in consequence of a vow he had made to his mystic medicine, which obli;;ed liim to change his dress for that of a woman, to do their work, and to permit his hair to growj

After giving an account of the Mi°quga which agrees with what has been written above. Miss Fletcher'^ tells of "a man who had the misfortune to be forced to this life and tried to resist. His father gave him a bow and some arrows, but the penalty of his vision so wrought upon his mind that, unable to endure the abnormal life, he committed suicide." (See §§212, 353.)

STARS AS WAKANDAS.

§ 31. That the Omaha and Ponka regarded the stars as Wakandas seems probable from the existence of nikie names and the personal mystery decorations. (See §§ 45, 47, and 52.) There are star names in the Night gens of the Kansa, and they i)oint to the mythical origin ot the gens. The Kansa made offerings to the morning star. Among the Osage the traditions of the Tsiou Wacta3|e and Bald Eagle people mention several Wakandas among the stars. These are as follows: Watse (^U5ia, a "grandfather;" Watse mi"3|a, a "grandmother;" Mi"kak'e pe^Ti^da, the Seven Stars (Pleiades!), a "grandfather;" the constellation Ta ^ad^i" or the Three Deer, a "grandfather;" the morning star, Mi^kak'e tsih^SL (literally, large star), a "grandfather;" the small star, a "grandfather;" the bowl of the Dipx)er, called "Wadaha finkce; the Funeral Bier," a "grandfather," and the Female Red Bird, a "grandmother," the eponym of the Tsiou Wacta5(e or "Red Eagle" gens. She, too, was probably a star.'

§32 Ga" ed^da" fi"' ct€wa" ^aha"'-na°i ni'aci°'ga ama', dahe/ ijaiiga' ^i",

And what the soever usually Indian the hill large the

col. prayed (to) pi. col.

ob. sub. ob.

ct^'wa"'. " Wakan'da b^u'gaqti wi'5[ai a," e'-na"i. " Hau, xan'de nink{^/

soever Wakanda all I ask a ! they said Ho (Urround you who

favor of usually

you (pi.)

c^, i[a'ci jifi'ga e'ga" a'wita" te' tl," ai' ni'kaci°'ga ama\ X^®' ui'ffe

sit some little so I tread will ! say Indians the Wbencethe wind

time on you pi. sub. is sent hither (f)

• James* Account Long's Exped., Phil., vol. i, 1823, p. 120.

*Rept. Peabody Museum, Vol. iii, p. 281, note.

'See 'Osage Traditions." pp. 384-395, in 6th Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn.

380 A STUDY OP 8I0UAN CULTS.

du'baha t^' ctl falia"'-iia"i. "-rade' ui'^e du'baha imfika'c^,

in four the too they iisaaUy Whence the wind in four ye whoare

placea pray (to) is sent hither (?) places

i°wifi'ija"i-gt1." Ga«' gage'gi^a"'i ni'aci"'ga uke'^i" ama', Wakaii'da

holpyenie and they speak in that Indian ordinairy the pi. Wakanda

manner to (one) sub.

wa'f aha"i t^'di. " The Indians used to invoke various objects, includthey pray to when them

ing the mountains, saying, 'O, all ye mysterious powers, I ask a favor of you ! ' They prayed to the ground, saying, * O, you who are the ground! May I tread you a little while longer!' i. e., ' May my life on earth be prolonged ! ' When one prayed to the four winds, he would say, 'Ho, ye four winds, help me ! ' Thus did speak when they prayed to the Wakandas." — (George Miller.)

THE WINDS AS WAKANDAS.

§ 33. The Omaka and Ponka invoked the winds, as has been stated in part of the preceding section. See also the statement of Samuel Fremont (§ 27V

In preparing for the pipe dance the tobacco pouch, two gourd rattles, and the ear of com have a figure drawn on each of them with green paint; it is the cross, indicating the four quarters of the heavens or the four winds.^

KANSA SACRIFICE TO THE WINDS.

'< In former days the Kansa used to remove the hearts of slain foes and put them in the fire as a sacrifice to the four winds. Even now (1882) offerings are made to every Wakanda by the Kansa, to the power or lowers above, to those under the hills, to the winds, the thunderbeing, the morning star, etc. As Ali"kawahu and Paha°legaqli are Yata men (i. e., members of gentes camping on the left side of the tribal circle), they elevate their left hands and begin at the left with the east wind, then they turn to the south wind, then to the west wind, and finally to the north wind, saying to each, 'G^tcfi, Wakan'da, mikHl' eyau', ' i. e., * O Wakanda, I really give that to you.' In former days they used to pierce themselves with knives and splinters of wood, and offer small pieces of their flesh to the Wakandas." ^

OSAGE CONSECRATION OP MYSTIC FIREPLACES.

The author considers that the following statement of the Osage chief, 5[ahi;ie-wa:^ayin3ia (of the Tsiou Wacta^e gens), refers to the invociition of the four winds. It appears to have been associated with fire or hearth worship. Whenever a permanent village of earth lodges was

1 For an account of the offering of meat to the four winds, see Om. Soo., 3d Ann. Kept, Bur. £thn., p. 284.

*See Miaa A. C. Fletcher on the " Wawan or Pipe Dance of the Omahas," Kept. Peabody Museum. Vol. in, p. 311, note 11, and the aathor'8 paper, Om. Soc., pp. 278^ 279.

sPaha"le-gaqli and Waqube-k'i" gave this information in the winter of 1882-'83. Compare the selfinflicted tortures of the Dakota and Ponka in the sun dance (§§ 29, 181-3, 185, 187).

^ .

established among the Osage and Kansa, there was a consecration of a certain number of fireplaces before the ordinary fireplaces could be made by the common people. The consecrated fireplaces were made in two parallel rows, beginning at the west and ending at the east. Among the Kansa there were seven on one side and six on the other, but among the Osage there seem to have been seven on each side. AmohgtheOsage,the Tsiou Wactajieand Pa°qkagentes were the ' roadmakers,' i. e., those who consecrated the two rows of fireplaces, ^ahi- 5(e-wa:^ayiii5[a said, "When the old Tsiou man made his speech, he went into details about every part of a lodge, the fireplace, building materials, implements^ etc. Four sticks were placed in the fireplace, the first one pointing to the west (see §§ 40, 84). When the first stick was laid down, the Tsiou leader spoke about the west wind, and also about a young buffalo ball (Tse:^u-oin3ia), repeating the name, Wanie-skft (meaning not gained). When the stick pointing to the north was laid down he spoke of Tsehe-quijge (gray bufialo horns), or a buffalo bull. When the stick at the east was laid down, he spoke of Tse-:^ui[a-tani[a (a large bufialo bull). On laying down the fourth stick, i>ointing to the south, he spoke of Tse mi°3|a (a bufialo cow). At the same time a similar ceremony was performed by the aged Pa"qka man for the genteson the right side of the tribal circle. In placing the stick to the east, he mentioned Ta:^8e ^aqpa ts6 (the east wind) and Tahe cade (dark horned deer). In placing that to the north, Ta^se ^jasa" ts6 (the north wind, literally, ^ the pine wind ') and Tahe qu;se (the deer with gray horns) were mentioned. In placing that pointing to the west, Ta:^se Ma°ha ts^ (the west wind) and an animal which makes a lodge and is with the Tahe pasiije (probably a deer name) were mentioned. In placing the stick pointing to the south, he spoke of Ta^se Ak'a ts? (the south whid) and Ta wanka he a]f[^adi skutan}[a (probable meaning, a large white female deer without any horns).

§34. In time of war, prayers were made about the fire (§287), when a warrior painted his face red, using the "fire paint," a custom of the left or Tsiou side of the tribe. Those on the right or Haii^a side used*"the young bufialo bull decoration," and probably offered prayer in connection therewith, in order to be filled with the spirit of their "little grand- father" (the young bufialo bull), as they rushed on the enemy. This will be seen from the words employed by the warrior: "My little grandfather is always dangerous a« he makes an attempt. Very close do I stand, ready to go to the attack !"'

THE THUNDEBBEING A WAKANDA.

Omaha and Ponka invocation ov thk thundkr- being.

§35. Among the Omaha and Ponka, when the first thunder was heard in the spring of the year, the Black bear people went to the sacred

'Account of thr war cii8toni» of the Ganges: in Amor. Naturalist, Vol. xviii, No. 2, February, 1884,. p. 133.

tent of the Elk gens, and there they assisted the Elk people in the invocation of the Thunder-being. At a similar gathering of the Ponka, the Ponka Black bear people said, "Hau,i^c6ge, ^i^dcpa ^fu ail'gata° gan^xiwa^^ai. Ma"ci4!^a)ia ma^^iii'ga,'' i. e., "Ho, venerable mar !' by your striking (with your club) you are frightening us, your grandchildren, who are here. Depart on high.''

THUNDKR-BEING INVOKED BY WARRIORS.

The Thunder-being is invoked by all present during the feast preparatory to starting on the warpath, when there is a small party of warriors. Each one addresses the Thunder-being as ^*Nuda°hanga,'' leader in war, or war (captain.'

When a large war party is desired, the Thunder-being is invoked (See history of Wabaskaha, in Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. vi, p. 394). Wabaskaha himself prayed, saying, <^Oh, Wakanda, though foreigners have injured me, I hoi)e that you may help me.'' All who heard him knew that he desired to lead a large war party. When the four captains were chosen, they had to cry incessantly at night as well as by day, saying, '*Oh, Wakanda! pity me! help me in that about which I am in a bad humor." During the day they abstained from food and drink; but they could satisfy their thirst and hunger when night came.

At the feast preparatory to starting off as a large war party, the keepers of the sacred bags sing thunder songs as well as other sacred songs. One of the thunder songs used on such an occasion begins thus:

" Wi-(^i-ga" na°'-pe-w4-^ ^-ga°,

Wi-:^i-ga° na°'-pe-wd-^6 ^-ga°,

W^-ti" kg g^i.ha"'-ha° ^I,

Na°'-pe-w4-^6 ."

" As my grandfather is dangerous.

As my grandfather is dangerous,

Dangerous when he brandishes his club,

Dangerous ."

When he had proceeded thus far, ja^i^-na^ptyl stopped and refhsed to tell the rest, as it was very " waqube." He said that the principal captains of a large war party tied pieces of twisted grass around their wrists and ankles, and wore similar pieces around their heads. But Two Crows, who has been a captain, says that he never did this. (See, however, the Iowa custom in § 75.)

'See Omaha Sociology, §24, 3d. Ann. Kept. Bur. Etfan., p. 227. t Omaha Sociology, in 3d. Ann. Kept. Bar. Ethn., p. 316.

ICTASANDA CUSTOM.

The following '*nikie^ or ancient custom of the Ictasanda gens was related by George Miller:

Xaji"' da"'ctSa°' ^il, na^'pai 3fl, ga°' Wakan'darma nini' uji' wa'i'i

Rain perhaps if they fear if so theWakandasCpl.ob.) to- put in they

seen danger hacco gave to

them

t^. Ga"' nini' uji' wa'i'i t^'di e'gifa°'i te: <p^fu waqpa'^i"-

the (past and tobacco pnt in they gave when they said to the Here very

act) to them (one) (past act)

qti a'*i°he', a^wa'^'wajja'^ica" cte'ctewa" *iiide ti'gfe g4xai-g(i,

poor I wno move in what direction soever to become abandoneil make ye

(suddenly)

:jiga"'ha, E'dedi' fa'^i"c^ (^) ja»nii"'. (tig^ize-ma^'fi^ 6'dedi

O grandfather. Yon are mv. there I suspect. Walking Forked-lightning, you are

f4^i"ce (^) ja°mi"'. (pia^'ba-ti'gfe, 6'dedi >a'fi"c4 (6) ja»mi°'.

mv. there I suspect. Sheet-lightning tiashes you are mv. there I suspect.

suddenly

(fia°'bargi-na", 6'dedi' f4fi"ce (6) ja"ini°'. GAagig^da"

Sheet-lightning is often you are mv. there I suHpect (a name referring

returning hither, to passing thui«der)

e'dedi ^d*i°c6 (6) ja°mi»'. Ga°' gat^ga" gtixa-b^jl 3il'ct6 niaci"'ga

you are mv. there I suspect. And in that manner he does not if man

ci"fiq4de ^6ga° naji^'i, maqpi' k^^jiUica" xag^ naji°'i. Ga"'

(See Note.) thus stands, cloud towani the Ig ob. crying stands. And

Wakan'da amd w6gidaha"'-bi, af. Nikaci"'ga ta°'wa"g^a°

Wakanda the pi. sub. that the}- know about they say. Person gens

them, their own

wedajl am^ a^i"' na^'pai, ijdje g6' ct^wa".

elsewhere the pi. sub. to have it they fear seen danger, name thepl. in. ob. even.

Agudi'ct^ nikaci"'ga am& i^a'e'f^ anid Icta'sanda

In some places person the pi. sub. those who have visions, etc. Ictasanda

(not spocifie<l.)

6cka" e:^ai' t€ e'ga" ga'xai. Waa"' ^'qti ga'xai da"'ct^

custom their the pb. so they do. song they theraRelves they make perha])S

gia"' naji"'i. Nini'ba k6 uji' afi"'i e'ga" maqpi'

singing their own they stand. IMpe the Ig. ob. tilled they have a^ cloud

k?:^adca° ugaq^e baha' naji^'i. Ni'kaci^'ga ama' a'ji ctl

towarcls the Ig. ob. falling holding out to they stand. Person the pi. sub. different too

.1 ga'xe-na"'i. Ata"'ct6 nini'ba afi^'-bajt ga'*' waa"' si'a°^e' da"'ct6

they often do. Sometimes pipe they do not have so singing alone perhapg

naji"'na°i. Kl ni'kaci°'ga ama' ^e' i'fae'^ ama' 6cka" eda'da*

they stand often. And person the pi. snb. this those who have deed what

visions, etc.

iida" uha' ^i'^6 tai' ^tl'cte i'balia"'i, cl Acka" ju^jl

good to follow the course promise will even they know, again deed ansuitable

a'kipa tai' ^I'ctfi i'baha°'i. Ga" ni'kaci^'ga ^i" a°wa"'waja

they will meet even they know. And person the in what direction

mv. one

gaq*a"' ma°*i"' ct€wa"' nini' uji' *i'i e'ga" wa^i'g^aiiki^ai'.

large hunting walks ijoever tobacco puts in g^ves to as causes him to prophesy,

expedition him

E^a"' ujan'ge uba' tai j^Vct^ i'baha" gi'ga"fai' e'ga° waafi'ki^ai'.

How road he will follow its even to know wishes for him as causes him to sing.

course

Kl ata^'ctfi ni'kaci°'ga ama' e'ga"i, a'fade-na°'i, wani'ta da"'ct^

And sometimes person thepl. sub. just so, they often pronounce, quadruped perhaps

ube'sni" nI, wani'ta d'u'ba a°4'i ha, e' da°'ct^a"'i.

they find if quadruped some they have he perhaps,

out given to me says

Notett.

388,4,et passim, (^a^'^ce 6ja"tni", coutractod in rapid prouimciation to, ^a^i"ceja°mi". 888,4-6. V>igfize-intt°^i», (;ia"ba-tig^e, (|ia"ba-gina", and Gaagig^eda'* are "nikie

names*' of the Ictasanda or Thunder gens of the Omaha. They may refer to

four Thunder beings, one at each point of the compass, or one dwelling in the

direction of each of the four winds. 388,8. Ci"^iqade, with the arms elevated and the hands stretched out. palms

down, towards the clouds. 388, 9-10. Nikaci"ga wedajl ama, etc. Other gent«s of Omaha fear to mention

these lotasanda names, or to bestow them on members of their gentes. 88841' Agudict<t . . i^a'ecS ama, etc. Refers to the Ifigifan i^a'e^d ama, or

the Thunder shamans, of the other Omaha gentes.

Translation.

When the Ictasanda people become fearful daring a shower, they fill a pipe with tobacco and oflTer it to the Thunder-beings. And when they oflfer the tobacco, they speak thus: "O grandfather! I am very poor here. In some direction or other cause a place to be abandoned by those (who would injure mef). I think that you are there O (/5ig^ize-ma"f i" ! I think that you are there. O (pia"ba-tigfe! I think that you are there. O (f ia"ba-gi na" ! I think that you are there. O Gaagig^eda" ! I think that you are there.^

And when they do not oflTer the tobacco, they stand with the arms elevated and the hands stretched out, palms down, as they cry towards the clouds. And they say that the Thunder-beings know about them, their worshippers.

The Omaha of the other gentes fear to mention these Ictasanda nikie names, or to bestow them on members of their gentes, as well as to invoke the Thunder-being or beings, unless they belong to the order of Thunder shamans. In that case, they can-do as the Ictasanda people do. They make songs about the Thunder-beings, and stand singing their own songs. They till the pipe with tobacco, and stand, holding it with the mouth-piece toward the clouds, as they gazi^ towards them.

These shamans often act otherwise. Sometimes they do not fill the pil)e, and then they stand singing the Thunder songs, without offering anything to the Thunder-beings.

And these shamans know when anything promises to result in good or evil to the person underta^king it. So when a person wishes to join a large hunting party, he fills a pipe with tobacco, and offers it to a shaman, thus causing him to prophesy. As he wishes him to know the result of following a certain course, (i. e., of traveling in a certain direction), he induces the shaman to sing (sacred songs). And sometimes the shaman predicts the very occurrence which comes to pass; if, for instance, he foretells that the inquiring man will kill game, he may say, * The Thunder- beings ( ?) have given me some ciuadrupeds.' "

DOB8IT.1 KANSA WORSHIP OF THE THUNDER-BEING. 385

KAN8A WORSHIP OF THE THUNDER-BEING.

§ 36. The following was a cnstom of the Lii or Thunder-being gens. At the time of the first thunder-storm in the spring of the year, the Lu people put a quantity of green cedar on a fire, making a great smoke. The storm ceased after the members of the other gentes offered prayers. The Buffalo or Tcedtiuga gens aided the Lu gens in the worship of the Thunder-being, by sending one of their men to open the sacred bag of gray hawk skin and remove the mystery pijie. These objects were kept by a Lii man, Kinuyinge, who was not allowed to open the bag.

Paha°le-gaqli, of the Large Haiiga gens, and Ali"kawahu, of the Small Hafiga, are the leaders in everything x)ertainiug to war. Paha"le-gaqli furnished the author with a copy of his war chart, on which are represented symbols of the mystery songs. In the middle of the chart there should be a representation of fire, but Paha"legaqli said that he was afraid to draw it there, unless he fasUul and took other necessary precautions. The songs used in connection with the chart are very ^< wakandagi," or mysterious. They are never sung on common occasions, or in a profane manner, lest the offender should be killed by the Thunder-being. One of the three songs about the sacred pipe, sung when the wrappings are taken from the i>ipe (See §86) by Ali°kawahu is as follows :

^<Hah<4! tc(5-ga-nii ha-h4! Ha-hd! tce-ga-nd ha-hd! Ha-hd ! tce-ga-n(i ha-ha ! Hii-hu' ! "

(Unintelligible to the author. Said when Ali"kawahu presses down on the covers or wrappings of the pipe.)

*' Yu ! yu ! y6 ! Huhu' ! Hii-hii' ! "

(Chorus sung by all the Large and Small Hafiga men.)

This last line is an invocation of the Thunder-being. The arms, which are kept apart and parallel, are held up toward the sky, with the palms of the hands out. Each arm is then rubbed from the wrist to the shoulder by the other hand.^

After the singing of these three songs, I^aha°le-gaqli carries the sacred clam shell on his back.

The second figure on the chart is that of the venerable man or Wakanda, who was the first singer of all the Haiiga songs. When Ali°- kawahu and Paha"le-ga(ili are singing them, they think that this Wakanda walks behind them, holding up his hands toward the Thunder-being, to whom he prays for them.

Thia Bong and the invocation of tho Thnnder-))einj;; are naed by the Ponka as well as by tho Kansa. According to MIhs Fletcher, the " sign of giving thankn '* among the Uunkpapa Dakota is made by moving tho hands in the opposite direction, i. e., " from the shoulder to the wrist." See " The White Buffalo Festival of the Uncpapas/' in Peabody Museum Kept, voL lU, p. 268.

11 ETH 26

When the war pipe is smoked by auy Hanga man, he holds the pipe in his right hand, and blows the smoke into the sacred clam shell, in his left. The smoke ascends from the clam shell to the Thunder-being, to whom it is pleasant.

The Kansa used to ^'cry to" the Thunder- being before going on the warpath. When the captain (tlie head of the Large Hanga gens) smoked his pipe, he used to say, Haii, Wakanda-6, Payi"-m;iha" mi"'

Hot O Wakanda! Skidi one

ts'6 kfl°'bla eyau,'' i. e. "Ho, Wakanda! I really wish a Skidi" (or,

to die I wiHh indeed

Pawnee Loup) "to die!"

The men of the two Hanga gentes unite in singing songs to stop rain, when fair weather is needed, and songs to cause rain when there has been a drought. (See § 43.)

SUBTBEBANEAN AND SUBAQUATIC WAKANDAS.

§ 37. The Omaha and Ponka believe in the Wakandagi, monsters that dwell beneath the bluffs and in the Missouri river. These monsters have very long bodies, with horns on their heads. One myth relates how an orphan killed a Wakandagi with seven heads.*

The Omaha have a tradition that a Wakandagi was seen in the lake into which Blackbird creek empties, near the Omaha agency. It is impossible to say whether the Wakandagi and the j^ande or Ground were differentiated (See § 27). The Kansa Mi-a-lu-cka were somewhat like the Wakandagi, though in one respect they resembled the mythical j^jirsnu-ta of the Omaha, i. e., in having enormous heads. The Kansa s^wak of the Mialucka as a nice of dreadful beings with large heads and long hair.' They dwelt in remote phices, to which they were supposed to entice any unwary Indian who traveled alone. The victim became crazy and subsequently lived as a mi"quga or c'atamite. Some of the Mialucka dwelt underground or in the water, sitting close to the bank of the stream. The ancient Mialucka was a benefcMjtor to the Indians, for he took some wet clay and made first a buffalo calf and then three buffalo bulls, which he ordered the Indians to shoot, after teaching them how to make bows and arrows and to use them.

THE INDA^II^GA.

§ 38. The Ponka, in 1871, told the author of a being whom they called the Inddfiuga. This being was a superhuman character, who dwelt in the forests. He hooted like an owl, and he was so powerful that he could uproot a tree or overturn a lodge. The Ponka had a song about him, and mothers used to scare their children by saying, "Behave, else the Indaf iuga will catch you ! " Joseph La Fleche had heard it 8i)oken of as a monster in human shape, covered with thick hair. As

•Contr. N. A. Ethu., vol. vi. pp. 108-131.

'Compare the baJr of the Thander-meD, in Contr. N. A. Etbn., vol. vi, pp. 187, 188.

•

the Ponka for wearing a mask is ^'Ind^finga giixe," or ^<to act the Indd^iuga," it may be that this character was an aboriginal bogy. Compare the Dakota Oa^otidaQ, HoHuogi^a, nijgna^6ala, etc. (§ 232.) Omaha mothers ased to scare their children by telling them that if they did not behave, Icibajl (a hero of the j^e-slude gens) or j^ext^ja** (a hero of the [^a'^ze gens) would catch them.^ Another fearful being was Inde-na°ba, or Two Faces, the very sight of whom killed a woman who was enceinte.' This being resembled, in some respects, Ictinike, the deceiver,^ though Ictinike was usually the counterpart of the Dakota Ikto, Iktomi, or Uijktomi. (See §§ 228-231.) As a worker of evil Ictinike may be compared with the Dakota Antlggite or Two Faces and the latter in turn resembled the Inddfiuga of the Ponka. (See §§ 233, 234.)

OTHER KANSA WAKANDAS.

§ 39. The third figure on the Kansa war chart is^ that of the Wakanda or aged man who gives success to the hunter. He is thus addressed by Ali^kawahu and Paha°le-gaqli : Ts^Age-jin'ga hau ! Dable ma°'yi"-

Venerable miui Uo ! To huut walk

largo quadmpods

au! D&da° wadjil'ta uikaci^ga ckMa° wAyakipa-bida" ts'^ya-bAnathoa What quadruped person aoever you meet them and kill ye

(pl.)

hau ! i. e., ^'Venerable man, go hunting ! Kill whatever persons or quadrupeds meet you!" They think that this being drives the game towards the hunter.

In the war chart there are seven songs of the Wakauda who makes night songs. Fig. 16 of that chart refers to a song of another Wakanda who is not described. Fig. 18 refers to two shade songs. Shade is made by a Wakanda. Fig. 19 is a dream song. There is a Wakanda who makes people sleepy, an Indian Somnus.

§ 40. OMAHA INVOCATIONS OF THE TRAP, ETC.

J^be da°'ct6 6ji jfl, maka°' igaxe ina°^i"'i sjl, e nini bah&

Beaver for in- he if, medicine making he walks if, that tobac- showstance traps for that co ing it purpose

e^& t6 6. (The invisible being who first made the medicine was

his the it.

thus addressed:) Nikaci°ga pahan'ga maka°' icpaha" niuk^'c^,

Person first medicine you knew you who

(sit).

d^jehide cka°z6 nifikfi'cfi, nini gakS' ! <p^f u ed4da° cka"z6 g6

medicine yon yon who tobacco that Here what you taught the

taught (sit), Ig. ob. pl.

in. ob.

1 Contr. N. A. Ethn, vol. vi, p. 390. See also § 19. *Ibid., p. 207. *Ibid., pp. 40, 134, etc.

• Am. Naturalist, July, 1885, voL 19, PI. xx, p. 970.

i^&palia"-majl'-qti wi"' ^i^&gafafi"h6 fa°'ja, ca°' ed&da° ct^cte

I do not know at all one I am carrying on though, yet what soever

my arm and in my hand as I move

iwamak^a^ t6 S>. Niui gak^', ai iiiaci"ga amd. (He then

I get it easily by will ! Tobacco that, says person the mv.

means of Ig. ob., sub.

prays to the beaver:) Ha6, Jabe! Nini gak(^'! Cbahi e'a"' ckAxai

Ho, Beaver! Tobacco that! Feeding how yon made

Ig. ob. place them

g6 b^iigaqti ugig*aca"'i-ga ! Nini gakCM (Next, to the medicine:)

the all travel ye in yoor Tobacco that!

pi. own ! Ig. ob.

inob.

Hail, j^jehide, nini gak6' ! *A°'qti ctecte wanita wi" uh6 ea°'^

Ho, Medicine, tobacco that! No matter how it qiiadrape<l one pass me on the

Ig. ob. is (or At any road (to the

rate) trap)

tat6, ef^ga" najiii'-g5. 'A"'qti ctecte d4q^uge a"'f a"8kd tate,

shall, thinking it stand thou. At any rate nostrils large enough shall,

for me (i. e., to smell me.)

ef^ga° najiu'-g^. Nini gak^M (Invocation of the trap:) Han,

thinking it stand thou. Tobacco that! Ho,

Ig. ob.

Ma"'z6 nank4c6! nini gak^M *A"'qti ctecte wi"' wat'^a^6 tA

Iron ye who (sit) 1 tobacco that ! At any rate one 1 kill it will

Ig. ob.

minke, e^6ga° g^i"'i-ga. (Invocation of the pack-strap:) Haii,

I who, thinking it sit ye. Ho,

W^'i** nifike'cfi! nini gak{^/! 'A°'qti cti^cte wi wanita ahigi

Pack- you who (sit) ! tobacco that ! At any rate I quadruped many

strap Ig. ob.

we^t'6, efegaii-gil. Hau, x^^^^ ionugajii ^ata"c6! nini gakCM

I touch think thou. Ho, Entrance at the right yon who tobacco that!

them, side stand ! Ig. ob.

*A°'qti ctecte wi wanita a"^a"'bakin'de aiuiji" ta inifike, e^gan-gsl.

At any rate I quadruiHMi brushing by me I stand will I who think thou.

(sit),

Hau, j^e-sln'de ugiicke ^dta"c6 ! nini gak6' ! ' A"'qti ctecte wi

Ho, Buffalo-tail tied to it you who tobacco that! At any rate I

stand ! Ig. ob.

wanita a"(jAp'^ an&ji"^ tA ininke, ef^gan-gS. Hau, Unt^^fi niuk6'c6!

quadruped near to me I stand will I who think thou. Ho, Fireplace you who

(sit), (sit) !

nini gak6' ! 'A°'qti ct^cto wi wanita a"'naai ag^i°' t4 minke,

tobacco that ! At any rate I quadruped drops over I sit will I who

Ig. ob. on me (from (sit),

the kettle)

ef^gaii-gft.

think thou.

Notes.

Told by George Miller. In the last invocation, he began to dictate thus: "Haii, Niiwi"xe duba dkipasau'de naiikdcCP i. e., "Ho, ye

Ho, Firebrand four meet at a com- ye who

mon point

four firebrands that meet at a common point (i. e., in the middle of the

DOBBBY.I OMAHA INVOCATIONS OF THE TRAP, ETC. 389

fli;eplace) !" He subsequently changed it to an invocation of the fireplace itself. But it is very probable that there was an invocation of the four firebrands, resembling the ceremonies of the Kansa and Osage (see § 33). George has given all that he remembers of the invocations, but he does not recollect the exact order.

387,3. deje-hide, *Mower part," or "roots of grass," an archaic name for "maka"", medicine. Nini gake — the classifier k3 shows that a long object, the pipe, is referred to, the tobacco being in the pipe when it is offered to the ]K)wers.

888,1. ai^^gaf/-a(j>i°he, contr. from ^i^^ga^a i^i"h^, used here in the sense of **ab^i"," I have.

888,12. a"^a"bakTnde, eq. to a*^^a"bista ^wa^, to send them (through) when they are so close that they touch me.

Translation.

The invisible being who first made the beaver medicine and taught its use to mankind, was thus addressed: "Oh, Thou who didst teach how to make the medicine, here is tobacco! Though I have your medicine, the nature of which I do not understand at all, grant that I may easily acquire something or other by means of it ! Here is tobacco ! ^

When he addressed the beavers, he said. Ho, ye Beavers ! Here is tobacco! Let all of you travel in your feeding places which you have made. Here is tobacco !" To the beaver medicine itself, he said, " Ho, Medicine! Here is tobacco! Stand thinking thus, <At any rate an animal shall surely pass me and be caught in the trap, and its nostrils shall be large enough to smell me.'" The trap itself was thus ad- dresse<l: "Ho, ye pieces of iron! Here is tobacco! Sit ye and think thus: 'At any rate I will kill one!'" To the pack-strap was said, "Ho, pack-strap! Here is tobacco! Think thou, 'At any rate I shall press against many quadrupeds.'" The right side of the entrance to the tent (!) was thus addressed: "Ho, Thou who standest at the right side of the entrance to the tent! (§ 232) Here is tobacco! Think thou, 'At any rate I shall continue to have some one bring dead animals on his back and send through me suddenly, rubbing against me as they pass through.'" To the principal tent pole these words were said, "Ho, Th(m who standest with the buftalo tail tied to thee ! Here is tobacco I Think thou, 'At any rate, I shall have a quadruped to come near me."^ When the man invoked the fireplace, he said, " Ho, Fireplace ! Here is tobacco ! Think thou, 'At any rate I shall sit and have the water fall on me in drops as it boils over from the kettle containing the quadruped.'"

These invocations may be compared with what the prophet Habakkuk tells us about the Chaldeans, in the first chapter of his prophecy. In his prayer to God, he says, "These plunderers pull out all men with the hook, draw them in with their casting net, and gather them with their draw net, and rejoice and are glad in it. Therefore they make offerings to their casting net, and burn incense to their draw net, for through them their catch is rich and their food dainty." *

1 Geikie's jMrapbrase, hi *' Hoars with the Bible," toL Y, p. 867.

390 A STUDY OP 8I0UAN CULTS.

FASTING.

§ 41. This topic naturally precedes that of visions or dreams about mystery, animals, and objects. Two Crows and Joseph La Flecbe heard the following spoken of as an ancient custom. It was told them in their youth by some of the old men of that day, who had received it from their elders as having been practiced by the tribe for unnumbered generations. When old men had sons, sisters' sons, or grandsons, who approached manhood, they used to direct those youths to abstain from food and drink, and to put <*lay on their fsices, saying: "Qa^xa'^a xage'

Far away crying

ma"fi"'i-ga. A"'ba fa'bfi" du'ba ja"' 3[I, wa^&ta-bajii-ga, kl ni

walk ye. Day three four Bl<>ep if, do not eat (pi.). ^nd water

fata"'-bajii-ga. <tiqu'bajl cte'ctT^wa", ca"' Wakan'da ak^ ufi'iia"

do not drink (pi.) You are not even if, still Wakanda the Hub. he will

••qube"

tA aka. Wa'fawaqp4ni ma*»oni°'i tiI, waon4ha"-de ^axd.xage ijl,

aid you. Yon act as if poor you walk if, you pray when yon cry if .

ufi'3[a" ta' aka," i. e., "Walk ye in remote places, crying to Wakanda.

he will aid you.

Neither eat nor drink for three or four days. Even though you do not accpure personal myterious power, Wakanda will aid you. If you act as poor men, and pray as you cry, he will help you."

When their throats became dry, their voices gave out. When they had comi)let^ their fasts, they went home, being exceedingly emaciated. At that time they could not swallow solid food, so they were obliged to subsist on mush mixed with much water, till by degrees they became able to eat what they pleased. Many thought that this fasting enabled them to have superhuman communications with Wakanda.

Fasting was practiced at other times, but always in order to obtain superhuman assistance or to acquire a tiansfer of sui)erhuman power. A Ponka war cax>tain exhorted each of his followers thus: "Aha6! Wacka' egan'-ga ! Qu'beki^a'-bi ^i"he' ! '•' i. e., " Oho ! Do exert yourself! Be sure to make yourself the possessor of superhuman power by the aid of the animal that you have seen in your vision after fasting!" * Members of a small war party had to fast four days, counting from the time that they started on the warpath. * Before the large war party was formed to avenge the wrongs of Wabaskaha, the four prospective captains fast^.^ When the Kansa captain fasted, he could not visit his family, but a small fasting lodge was erected for him at some distance from his own house.

MYSTIC TREES AND PLANTS.

§ 42. The Omaha have two sacred treed, the ash and the cedar. The ash is connected with the beneficent natural i)Owers. Part of the sacred pole of the Omaha and Ponka is ina<le of ash, the other part being of Cottonwood. Tlie stems of the niuiba weawa", or "safcred pipes of

• Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. vi, pp. 370,371.

• Om. Sociolos>*, in 3d. Ann. Rept. Bnr. Ethn., p. 317. s Ibid. p. 319.

• " Kantaa Monming and War Cuttoms," in Am. Katanllat, July 1886, p. 072.

HORSEY 1 MYSTIC TREES AND PLANTS. 391

friendship," are ina<le of ash. But the o^dar is linked with the destructive agencies, thunder, lightning, wars.'

When the seven old men took the i)ipes around the Omaha tribal circle, the bad Ma"^inka-gaxe peo])le wore phimes in their hair and wrapped branches of cedar around their hea<ls, being awful to behold. ISo the old man passed them by and gave the pipe to the other Ma"f iuka-gaxe, who were good. In the Osage traditions, cedar symbolizes the tree of life. When a woman is initiated int^) the secret society of the Osage, the officiating man of her gens gives her four sips of water, symbolizing, so they say, the river flowing by the tree of life, and then he inibs her from head to foot with cedar needles three times in front, three times at her back, and three times on each side, twelve times in all, pronouncing a sacred name of Wakan^ja as he makes each pass. Part of the Pa^qka gens of the Osage tribe^ are Red Cedar people. The Panka gens of the Kansa tribe is called " Qfindjala"," i. e., "wearers of cedar (branches) on the head." Cedar is used by the Santee Dakota in their ceremony of the four winds. (See § 128.) The Teton Dakota believe in the efficacy of the smell of cedar wood or of the smoke from cedar in scaring away ghosts. (See § 272.) In the Athapascan creation myth of Oregon, obtained by the author in 1884, the smoke of cedar took the ]>]ace of food for the two gods who made the world, and the re<l cedar is held sacred as well as the ash, because these two trees were the first to be discovered by the gods.^

That the Hidatsa have a similar notion about the red cedar is shown by their name for it, '^midahopa," mysterious or sacred tree. Compare what Matthews tell about the Hidatsa reverence for the cottonwood with what is recorded above about the Omaha sacred pole.* (§ 344.)

The cottonwood tree also seems to have been regarded as a mystic tree by tlie Omaha and Ponka, just as it is by the Hidatsa. The sacred pole of the two tribes was made from a tall cottonwood.* When the lower part <jf the sacred pole became worn away, about 8 feet remained, and to this was fastened a piece of ash wood about 18 inches long. In preparing for the dance called the llede watci, the lilke-sabS people sought a cottonwood tree, which they rushed on, felle<l, and bore to the center of the tribal circle, wliere they planted it in the *^uje:ji.'' Mystic names taken from the cottonwood are found in the (/^ixida and Nika- daona, the two war gentes of the Ponka tribe, and in the (/^atada and ]a[a°ze gentes of the Omaha.^

That there were other mystic trees .and plants, appears from an examination of the personal names of the Omaha, Ponka, and cognate tribes. For instance, j^ackabig^a", a nikie name of the jjSLdB>y or Deer

Mi88 Fletcher, Id Am. Assm*. Adv. Sci., Proc., vol. xxxiil, pt, 2. 1885. pp. 616, 617. Francis La Fl^che, ibiil.. p. 614.

'OsRgo Traditions, in 6th Ann. Kept, of the Director Bnr. Ethn., 1888, p. 377.

«Am. Anthrnpoloifist. vol. ii., No. 1, 1888, p. 59. (" Januarj', 1889.")

'U. S. Geol. and (tcugr. Survey. Ha.Nden; Miscel. Publ., No. 7, 1877; Matthews' Ethnography and Philology of tlio HidatHa, 1877, p. 48.

'(hn. Soc., p. 234. Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. vi, 468, line 3.

^Om. Soc., p. 297. Contr. N. A. Etlm., vol. vi, 471, lines 3-6.

gens of the Omaba, conveys some reference to a white oak tree, )a(;kahi; and in the Nuqe, a Buffalo gens of the Ponka tribe, we find the name j^abehi, from a plant, bush, or tree found in Nebraska, the leaves of which, resembling those of red cherry trees, are used by the Omaha for making a tea. Further study may show that the Winnebago, who have the name Wazijja, Pine Person, reverence a pine tree. (Query : May not this name be Cedar Person, rather than Pine Person?)

Among the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, we find several cedar, com, and pumpkin names. Several corn and pumpkin names occur in the name list of the Kansa tribe. Corn, elm, and black hawthorn names are found in the Osage name list, as well as cedar names; and their traditions tc^il of the cedar, red oak, and sycamore, as well as of the corn and pumpkin.^ (See § 49.)

§ 43. This term has been defined in Chapter ii (§ 8). It is very probable that fasting for several days tended to produce the condition of mind and body requisite for the supiM>sed superhuman communications. According to j^af i°-na"pajT and other Omaha, some persons thought that they saw or heard ghosts or various animals. Sometimes men were roused from sleep, imagining that they heard mysterious voices. They claimed to have interviews with U-ga-ha-na-da-ze, or the Ancient of Darkness; Ma-qpi, or the Ancient of Clouds; x^^^®? ^^ ^'^^^ Ground Being; Ing^a", or the Thunder-being; the Sun, the Moon, the Morning Star, the Ancient of Rattlesnakes, the Ancient of Grizzly Bears, the Ancient of Black Bears, the Ancient of Buffaloes, the Ancient of Big Wolves, and the Ancient of Prairie Wolves. Each being or animal thus seen in a dream or vision seems to have been regarded as the special guardian spirit of the person claiming to have had interviews with him. The lug^" if a'ef ^ ma, or Those who had interviews with the Thunder-being, never danced at the meetings of their society. They invited one another to feast, and they sang as they remained seated. The songs referred to the Thunder-being. When they finished eating and singing the ceremonies ended. This order of Thunder shamans claimed the power to make rain (see § 36).

According to j^afi°-na"paj1f and Little Village Maker, these shamans could also make circles of seven colors around the sun and moon, and the two men just named said that they had seen this done. Joseph La Fl^che and Two Crows gave the following explanation: "When there are clouds that obscure the moon, a circle is seen around the moon, and it sometimes resembles a rainbow." Though Two Crows belongs to the Buffalo society {jfi ifa^efj6-ma, or Order of Buffalo shamans — see § 89), he said that he had never had an interview with a mysterious buffalo, but that his work in the order was confined to the practice of surgery, he being the keeper of the "rnaka" ski^," or sweet

• Otage TraditioiM, in 6th Axin. Bept. Bar. Bthn., pp. 877, 879, 890.

noBSEY.J I^A*E(pfi. 393

medicine. Notwithstanding tliis^ there are certain baffalo songs, the property of the order, and which they claim to be powerful charms capable of working cures, when used by the surgeons of their order. Said Two Crows to the author, "If they had sent for the doctors ot our order we could have cured President Garfield.^ The author obtained two of these Buffiilo songs from an Omaha, but they are recorded only in singing notation.^

Among the Omaha societies are the Caiige ifa'ef^ ma, the Horse shamans,^ the Ca^^-^anga if a'ef6-ma, the Big Wolf shamans,^ and the Ma"tcu if a'e^-ma, the Grizzly Bear shamans/

According to Francis La Fl^che.'^

"There are three degrees of powers which come to men through visions: Fiist, when the vision takes the form of an animal which addreases the man, he will then have acquired a power which will stead him in danger, and give him success in Ufe. Second, if the vision asHumes the appearance of a cloud, or a human shape having wings like an eagle, and a voice addresses the man, he will have the additional power of being able to foretell events. Third, when the vision comes without any semblance and only a voice is heard, the man is giveu not only the power to achieve success and foretell events, but he can foresee the coming of death. Should a man endowed with the third degree so elect, he can in due form join the Ghost Society; or, if he prefers, he ran practice his powers individually."

Uis father, the late Joseph La Fl^che, told the author in 1882 that the Ghost Dance formerly belonged to the Ponka tribe, from whom the Omaha took it; though it has not been used by the Omaha since about A. D. 1850.® The only inference which the author can draw from this statement of the father is that if the Omaha obtained the Ghost Dance from the Pouka, the Ghost Society or order of Ghost shamans is not an original Omaha society. That the two are closely connected is proved by the names, Wanaxe i^a'e^-ma, the (order of) Ghost shamans (or. The Ghost Society), and Wanaxe i^a*e^ watcigaxe. The dance of those who have visions of ghosts, or. The Ghost Dance.

The Kansa have the Tee wactce, or Buffalo shaman, and an order of such shamans. When a Kansa had a vision or dream (i-ya-k'e-ye) of an animal, etc., he i>aint'ed the mystery object on his shield. An old woman used to *'iyak'eye" of a flying serpent, the j[yets'a tdji licka. The remains of such enormous serpents are found in the Black Hills, ^^and if one finds such a reptile, he must die." For an account of the Kansa ^^wakandagi" see § 66.

The Kwapa or Ukaqpa Indians speak a dialect more closely allied to that of the Omaha and Ponka than to those of the Kansa and Osage. With them, to have superhuman communications is called d^-q^4-df@; shamans and doctors are nika qdwS, mysterious men, and among their

'See Jour. Am. Folk-lore, vol. i, No. 3, p. 209; and Om. Sociology, in 3d Ann. Bept. Bar. £thn., pp. 347-8.

'Om. Sociolof^y, p. 348.

Mbid, pp. 348, 349.

«Ibid, p. 349.

S" Death and Funeral Castoms among the Omahas/* in Jonr. Amer. SV>lk-lore, voL ii, Ko. 4, p. 8.

H)m. Soo., p. 868.

societies of such men are tlie following: Te dfa^'edfS, Those liaviii;; SHperbiiman comnmnicatinns with the Buffalo; the Ma^tn d^aiq't'df'^, Those having ^iterviews with the Grizzly Bear; the I''ta"'dfa" tari'ija (Ifag'^fi^, Those haying interviews with the Panther; and the .)nw€ d^aq'^dfi^, Those having interviews with the Beaver. There were doubtless other orders, but they are aiiknown to the author's Kwapa informant, AlphouHus Valliere, of the WajihjiH or Bird gens.'

Fla.lC6. — G«nv«MUl«r'ipflrHia«linf«tory decorotioD.

§ 44. The Omaha and Ponka have certain personal mystery decoratioiiN, some of which are woni on garments, and others appear on the tents of their owners. The I makers and wearers of such I deuorntions must be members I ofoneof the orders of shamans. George Miller's father, Little ' Soldier, used to wear a buffalo robe decorated in the style shown in Figs. 15G and 157. It was his personal mystery decoration, which uo one else could Even members of bis gens ' (the Ictasanda, a Thunder and Reptile gens) feared to imitate it. The father promised to paint this decoration on four white blankets for his son George, but be died before lie could paint the fourth one.

George recei veil theflrst one when he was about seven teen years of age. Before he married he had worn out three. He still has the right to decorate and wear the fourth blanket, according to his father's intention. He could decorate other white blankets iu this style, and wear them, if he wishetl, but he could not transmit to any oneof his children (the grandchildren of Little Soldier) the right to make and wear such a decoration, tudess George himself should hereafter see the objects in a dream or vision.

The right to use such designs on a buffalo robe, blanket, tent, etc., most originate with one who has bad

niiar;, 1891, mrip time iRer the prepmUoD ottbt ID M df ttie t la Kuwl; heaid.

of Fig. IM.

DotBgi.) ORDEE OF THUNDEB SHAMANS. 395

a TJsioD or dream in which the mystery objects are manifested. Those who could use the class of designs rcpreeented in the accompanying illustrations (Figs. l.W-161) were members of the order of Thunder shamans (liigfa'' ifa'ef£-ma).

§ 45. This order is composed of those who have had dreams or visions, in which they have seen the Thunder -being, the Sun, the Moou, or some other sui>erterre8trial objects or phenomena.

When a person saw the Thuuder-beiug or Rome other mystery object, he kept the matter a Kecret for some time. He took care to join the firHt war party that went from his camp or village. When the party reached the land of the enemy or got into some troable the man told of his dream or vision. Should the dreamer or seer kill or grasp a foe while a member of the expeu(;ht back one of the enemy's horses also had the right to make a Thiin<ler song. Some time having elajised after the return of the warriors, the seer painted the mystery objects on a robe or blanket, and prepared a (east, to which he invited all the members of the order

Tta. US^Bobe or WannUa*.

of Thunder shamans. When the. guests had assembled the robe was bung up and shown to them. Then all who were present rejoiced. From that time onward the host was a member of the order, and he could wear the robe with safety.

He could give his son the right to wear sncli a robe, but unless that son had a similar vision he could not transmit the right to one of the next geoenition. Little Soldier painted a buffalo robe with his personal mystery decoration, and gave it to Two Crows, whose father bad been one of the leaders of the order of Thunder shamans. So Two Crows wore the robe, and lie can make another like it ; but he can not transmit the right to his son, Ga'i^-b^JI. Two Crows would have been afraid to wear the robe or to copy the decoration on it liad he not been a member of the order by direct inheritance from bis father. A father can clothe his son in such a robe when that sou is large enough

A 8TUDV OP 8I0UAN CULTS.

Fio. Ua.— Tout er Wan

to go courting. Tbe man can not give such a robe to his tlanghter, but he can give one to Ms flon'8 son, or t*) liis daughter's son, should that grandson be a large youth, who has nearcd or reached the age of puberty.

If n man who became eligible by his vision to membership in the order of Thunder »h»maiiiK ventured to wear the decorated robe without inviting the members of the order t«» n feast, he incurred the anger of the members and misfortune was sure to follow. Should a man wear such a decorated i-obe without having had a vision of the mystery object, he was in danger (if the object was c^naet^ted with the Thnnder-bcing, etc.) of being killed by lightning. Every Omaha feared to decorate his robe, tent, or blanket with an object seen by another person in a dream or vision. For i iuBtance, George Miller would not dare to have bears' claws, horses' hoofs, etc., on his robe, because neither he nor liis father ever saw a bear or horse mysteriously. There are penalties attached to violations of the prohibitiona of the other orders, but George Miller did not know about them.

Besides the personal mystery decoration of the robe or blanket, is that of the tent. PI. XLiv, F is a sketch of a tent, furnished to the author by Dried Buffalo Skull, au old man of tbe ^atadagensoftheOmO" ha. The decoration of this tent was the personal mystery or"qub^ of Hupe^ Sr.,Mherof Hapefa,Jr (now known as j^enuga }anga),of the Wasabe-hit'^I or Black Bearsub-geDBofthe^atada. Aft«r the death of Hupefa, Sr., the decoration became the prop- erty of his kinsman, Agaha-wocuce, of the same sub-gens, and father of jaf i^na'pajl. Tlie circle at the top, representing a bear's cave, is sometimes painted bine, though Agafaa-wacnce bad it reddened. Below the four zigzag lines (representing the lightnings of different colors) are the

Kobe or ^wjobe.

Domr.I OBNEBIC FOBHB OF DECORATION. 397

prints of bears' paws. The lower part of the tent was blackened with ashes or cliarcoal. Among the four zigzag liuea, red, according to Mr. Francis La Fl^cfae, symbolizes the east.

Fio. Ifll.— Bobo of

Wanukige, a chief of the Ictiksaridii gcDK, had a vision of the aurora borealis, so he depicted this on hia robes and tout, as shown in Figs. 158 and 159. On the tent were seven stripes, three on each side of the entrance and one in the rear. Ea«b robe that ho wore had seven stripes.

Fig, 160 represents the personal mystery decoration of ^aqnbe of the ^a"zc gens. <ieorge Miller's father could wear this decoration, but the right to it couhl not be, transmitted by htm to any one else, jahe-iapti, of the -^eA" subgens of the (patada gens, once had a vis- ion of two stars and the new moon. Consetjuently he decorated bis buffalo robe, as shown in Fig. 161, and Joined the order of Thunder shamans. He died when the author was at the Omaha agency (betweeu 1878 and 1880).

GE.NEKIC W>RMB OF DECOHATION:

5 46, There are examples of generic forms of decoration, as well as those of C. specific forms. Fur instance, when a person had a vision of the night, or of the ^"^ i82-o™««« fl«™ti‹m rer«Tb›g to Tbunder-being, or one of some other superterrestrial object, he blackeued the apper part of his tent and a small portion on each side of the eutrauce, as shown in Fig. 162.

J98 A STUDY OF BIOUAN CULTS.

It was giveD thus by George Miller:

Niaci'ga ani& Agudi ct$ lia°' da'"ctS i^a'e^^ am^ ^f ugfi"'! ^I,

Peopls Ihe wbcre evnr nigbt fbr (mainiile Ihvy bavs tbe t«D( (he<r If

wiMdta° sAbefaf, kf ci &gud\ etc nikaci''ga am& ingfa"' i^'ef^ atn&

Mia>luilr the tha; blackm KDd ftgain when ever people tbe pi. tbunilet tbeyhBTethepI, IcDgth anb. being TialoDs aub.

of It. cl ^ga° iigfi'"-biaui&.

■gala » lbs]' dwell In,

SPECIFIC POBMS OF DECURATION.

A specific form related to the generic one just described is sliown in Fig. 163. Ttie blackened part of the tent reprosentt the night, and tlie star denotes the morniug star. There was a star on the left band at tbe back of the tent, and another star ou the right side. Black and blue are occasionally interchangeiible in Omaha symbolism; hence we find that the night is represented by a blue band on a coyote i^kiu worn by tbe «^lder A"pa"-8ka, and subsequently by his son and namesake, when tlie latter was a small boy. The bine hand was worn next the HhoulderH of the owner (Fig. 164),